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EEG asymmetry and heart rate during experience of hypnotic analgesia in high and low hypnotizables.

This study evaluates the effects of hypnotic analgesia and hypnosis on bilateral EEG activity recorded from frontal, central and posterior areas during three painful electrical stimulation conditions: waking, hypnosis/no-analgesia, hypnosis/analgesia. Eight high-hypnotizable and eight low-hypnotizable (right handed) subjects participated in the experiment. The following measures were obtained: pain and distress tolerance ratings; EEG spectral amplitudes for the frequency bands: delta (0.5-3.75 Hz), theta 1 (4-5.75 Hz), theta 2 (6-7.75 Hz), alpha 1 (8-9.75 Hz), alpha 2 (10-12.75 Hz), beta 1 (13-15.75 Hz), beta 2 (16-31.75 Hz), total band (0.5-31.75 Hz), '40-Hz' (36-44 Hz); cardiac interbeat interval (ms); mid-frequency and high-frequency peaks from power spectral analysis of heart period variability. During hypnosis/analgesia, high hypnotizable subjects displayed significant reductions in pain and distress scores compared to hypnosis/no-analgesia and waking conditions. In each experimental condition these subjects displayed significant lower total and beta 1 amplitudes compared to low hypnotizables. High hypnotizables, on central and posterior recording sites, during both hypnosis/analgesia and hypnosis/no-analgesia conditions also showed total and delta EEG amplitude reductions in both hemispheres and a theta 1 amplitude reduction in the left hemisphere. However, for total, delta and beta 1 bands in the hypnosis/analgesia condition the amplitude reduction was more pronounced in the right hemisphere as shown by hemispheric asymmetry in favor of the left hemisphere. Low hypnotizables, on posterior recording sites, displayed a delta amplitude reduction during hypnosis/no-analgesia and hypnosis/analgesia conditions. These subjects also showed, for all recording sites, a reduction in theta 1 amplitude during hypnosis/no-analgesia compared to the waking condition. Lows, however, failed in evidencing amplitude differences between hypnosis/no-analgesia and hypnosis/analgesia conditions. During hypnotic analgesia the hemispheric asymmetry found in high hypnotizables was parallel to a significant reduction in the spectral mid-frequency peak of heart period variability which indicated a decrease in the level of sympathetic activity. In contrast, during hypnosis/no-analgesia the EEG amplitude reduction was not paralleled by a decrease in sympathetic activity.

Adult↗
PubMed1986

Effects of methylmercury on hypnotic action of hexobarbital, liver hydroxylase and cytochrome P-450 in mice.

The effects of methylmercury hydroxide (MeHgOH) on the hypnotic action of hexobarbital was investigated in adult 129/SvSl mice of both sexes. It was found that there was no sex difference in the response to MeHgOH treatment. The action of MeHgOH was intimately related to the interval between MeHgOH administration and the test of hexobarbital hypnosis. A biphasic effect was observed. An initial dose-dependent prolongation of hexobarbital hypnosis was observed in animals pretreated with MeHgOH 24 h earlier. If the interval was extended from 24 h to 1 week, a shortening of sleeping time was observed in MeHgOH treated animals. The animals recovered from the effects of MeHgOH in 3 weeks. The initial effect of MeHgOH was found closely related to the decrease in the rate of hexobarbital metabolism in the liver through lowering of cytochrome P-450 concentration. On the other hand, the delayed shortening of hexobarbital hypnosis was not related to the rate of hexobarbital metabolism. It is assumed that the delayed effect of MeHgOH on the hexobarbital hypnosis is due to MeHgOH acting on the central nervous system to decrease its sensitivity to hexobarbital via interaction with the barbiturate receptors on the GABA-chloride ionophore complex. In animals exposed in utero to MeHgOH, it was found that the duration of hexobarbital-induced sleeping time was significantly longer in the offsprings tested for hexobarbital hypnosis 3.5 months after birth following prenatal exposure to MeHgOH. Repeated administration of hexobarbital to adult offsprings prenatally exposed to MeHgOH and to control mice shortened hexobarbital sleeping time, however, the maximum shortening capacity was smaller in the treated group. It is concluded that the hypnotic action of hexobarbital in mice can be altered by MeHgOH exposure both prenatally and postnatally. The effects of prenatal exposure to MeHg were observed in adult offsprings, indicating that MeHg may have a functional teratogenic effect on barbiturate-induced hypnosis in the absence of gross anomalies.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Hypnotic modulation of flow-mediated endothelial response to mental stress.

Post-ischaemic flow mediated dilation of peripheral arteries (FMD) is transiently reduced during mental stress. This experiment was aimed at assessing whether hypnosis, which is a powerful relaxation technique, modulated the FMD response to mental stress in subjects with different hypnotic susceptibility. Results showed that hypnotic relaxation prevented the expected stress-related reduction of FMD only in highly hypnotizable subjects, suggesting a protective role of hypnotisability against vascular damage.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Cerebral activation during hypnotically induced and imagined pain.

The continuing absence of an identifiable physical cause for disorders such as chronic low back pain, atypical facial pain, or fibromyalgia, is a source of ongoing controversy and frustration among pain physicians and researchers. Aberrant cerebral activity is widely believed to be involved in such disorders, but formal demonstration of the brain independently generating painful experiences is lacking. Here we identify brain areas directly involved in the generation of pain using hypnotic suggestion to create an experience of pain in the absence of any noxious stimulus. In contrast with imagined pain, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) revealed significant changes during this hypnotically induced (HI) pain experience within the thalamus and anterior cingulate (ACC), insula, prefrontal, and parietal cortices. These findings compare well with the activation patterns during pain from nociceptive sources and provide the first direct experimental evidence in humans linking specific neural activity with the immediate generation of a pain experience.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Adjunctive self-hypnotic relaxation for outpatient medical procedures: a prospective randomized trial with women undergoing large core breast biopsy.

Medical procedures in outpatient settings have limited options of managing pain and anxiety pharmacologically. We therefore assessed whether this can be achieved by adjunct self-hypnotic relaxation in a common and particularly anxiety provoking procedure. Two hundred and thirty-six women referred for large core needle breast biopsy to an urban tertiary university-affiliated medical center were prospectively randomized to receive standard care (n=76), structured empathic attention (n=82), or self-hypnotic relaxation (n=78) during their procedures. Patients' self-ratings at 1 min-intervals of pain and anxiety on 0-10 verbal analog scales with 0=no pain/anxiety at all, 10=worst pain/anxiety possible, were compared in an ordinal logistic regression model. Women's anxiety increased significantly in the standard group (logit slope=0.18, p<0.001), did not change in the empathy group (slope=-0.04, p=0.45), and decreased significantly in the hypnosis group (slope=-0.27, p<0.001). Pain increased significantly in all three groups (logit slopes: standard care=0.53, empathy=0.37, hypnosis=0.34; all p<0.001) though less steeply with hypnosis and empathy than standard care (p=0.024 and p=0.018, respectively). Room time and cost were not significantly different in an univariate ANOVA despite hypnosis and empathy requiring an additional professional: 46 min/161 dollars for standard care, 43 min/163 dollars for empathy, and 39 min/152 dollars for hypnosis. We conclude that, while both structured empathy and hypnosis decrease procedural pain and anxiety, hypnosis provides more powerful anxiety relief without undue cost and thus appears attractive for outpatient pain management.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

The effects of neurosteroids on picrotoxin-, bicuculline- and NMDA-induced seizures, and a hypnotic effect of ethanol.

The effects of intraperitoneally (IP) or intracerebroventricularly (ICV) administered neurosteroids [allopregnanolone (AP); 5beta-tetrahydrodeoxycorticosterone (5beta-THDOC); dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS); pregnenolone sulfate (PS)] and their precursors [progesterone (PROG), pregnanedione (PREG)] on N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA)-, picrotoxin (PTX)- and bicuculline (BIC)-induced seizures and ethanol-induced sleep were studied in mice. It was found that IP injections of (+)MK-801 most potently antagonized NMDA-, PTX- and BIC-induced seizures, as compared to diazepam (DZP), PROG and PREG. Both precursors of neurosteroids appeared only marginally active in the applied models of convulsions. ICV injections of AP selectively blocked PTX- and BIC-induced seizures, whereas 5beta-THDOC and (+)MK-801 also antagonized NMDA-induced convulsions. ICV administered DHEAS induced seizures in a dose-dependent way. ICV injections of AP and midazolam shortened the latency and prolonged the duration of sleep induced by IP injections of ethanol (5.0 g/kg). On the contrary, DHEAS and PS significantly reduced the hypnotic-like effect of ethanol. The obtained results suggest that neurosteroids may modulate in an agonistic (AP, 5beta-THDOC), or antagonistic way (PS, DHEAS), the GABA(A) receptor complex functions. Some of them (5beta-THDOC) also interact with NMDA receptors. AP appeared to be the most selectively acting compound, with its profile of action fully comparable to that of midazolam. AP also enhanced the hypnotic effect of ethanol, pointing out to the propensity to interact with centrally depressant agents. These findings, together with the possibility of conversion of some neurosteroids in the brain to other steroid hormones (testosterone, estradiol and aldosterone), indicate the limitations of their use for the treatment of neurological and psychiatric disorders.

Animals↗
PubMed1978

[Statistical spectral study of alpha rhythms: modifications due to the tardive action of a hypnotic (author's transl)].

In a simple blind study to evaluate electroencephalographic criteria objectively, and to continue characterization of psychotropic compounds, 5 mg of nitrazepam, a hypnotic derivative, was given to seven subjects the night before the recording. We noted that in most subjects there was a reduction in the spectral intensity of the alpha rhythm, associated with a greater frequency instability, several hours after the absorption of nitrazepam. This corresponds to the tardive hypnotic action of the psychotrope, the importance of which is wellknown at the present time. In the same way as the increase in rapid rhythms, the slipping of 0.5 c/s of the dominant alpha frequency to the top could be characteristic of the action of nitrazepam.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Seeing is believing: the reality of hypnotic hallucinations.

Two experiments investigated the reality attributed to hypnotic suggestion through subtle projection of a visual image during simultaneous suggestion for a visual hallucination that resembled the projected image. In Experiment 1, high and low hypnotizable participants were administered either a hypnotic induction or wake instructions, given a suggestion to hallucinate a shape, and then the projected image was subsequently introduced. Although highs in both conditions rated the projected image more vividly than lows, highs in the hypnosis (but not wake) condition made comparable reality ratings when the projected image was absent and present. In Experiment 2, high hypnotizable participants were administered a suggestion to see a shape on a wall. For half the participants the suggested image was projected on the wall and then removed, and for half the projection was initially absent and then introduced. Participants who had the projection absent and then present reported comparable reality and vividness ratings when the projection was absent and present. These findings indicate that elevated hypnotizability and hypnosis are associated with attributions of external reality to suggested experiences.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1991

Selective hypnotic amnesia: is it a successful attempt to forget or an unsuccessful attempt to remember?

Subjects in 2 experiments (ns = 72 and 50) learned a 16-item, 4-category word list and were then administered hypnotic suggestions to be amnesic for all the words in 1 of the categories. Even when selective amnesia was completely successful, subjects in both experiments revealed a high level of recall for words not targeted for amnesia; moreover, these words were recalled in a highly organized, category-by-category fashion. Evidently, attention to relevant retrieval (i.e., organizational) cues does not oblige recall of words targeted for amnesia. Forgetting in the presence of such powerful mnemonic cues seems to characterize hypnotic amnesia and some spontaneous forms of forgetting as well. We argue that mnemonic lapses of this kind represent a failed attempt to remember rather than a successful attempt to forget.

Amnesia↗
PubMed1992

Influence of rapport on hypnotically induced pseudomemory.

Three studies examined the influence of rapport on pseudomemory. Study 1 tested eight groups of 22 subjects in a 2 (level of susceptibility: high, low) x 2 (state instruction: hypnosis, waking) x 2 (rapport: present, reduced) design, rapport being inhibited by the hypnotist criticizing subjects' performance. Pseudomemory was tested by a second experimenter who also criticized subjects. Study 2 varied level of susceptibility and rapport for 88 hypnotically instructed subjects where criticism was offered only by the second experimenter. Study 3 analyzed effects among 44 highly susceptible hypnotic subjects where the second experimenter refrained from criticizing subjects. Data indicated a significant association between rapport with the hypnotist and pseudomemory in cued recall, strength of pseudomemory being appreciably lowered when negative hypnotist rapport was reinforced by the person testing pseudomemory.

Adult↗
PubMed1995

Does counterpain imagery mediate hypnotic analgesia?

Sixty-six high hypnotizable individuals received a baseline exposure to pain and 2 counterbalanced hypnotic analgesia conditions. Standard analgesia invoked counterpain imagery, whereas imageless analgesia proscribed imagery. The mean level of pain reduction in these 2 conditions was virtually identical and significantly less than the pain rated in the baseline condition. Furthermore, cognitions experienced as active efforts to cope with the pain occurred far less often and were associated with less pain reduction than cognitions experienced as passive concomitants of pain reduction. The results cast considerable doubt on the widespread assumption that imaginative involvement mediates hypnotic responding.

Analgesia↗
PubMed1989

Hypnotic blindness: a behavioral and experiential analysis.

This research examined the influence of visual information on a decision task that subjects were administered during hypnotically suggested blindness. Real, hypnotizable subjects and simulating, unhypnotizable subjects were tested in two experiments. Experiment 1 focused on behavioral responses, and Experiment 2 focused on experiential reactions. In both experiments, the findings indicated that the behavioral responses of reals were influenced by visual information despite their reported blindness. The behavioral responses of reals and simulators were essentially similar. The experiential data in Experiment 2 provided information about the phenomenal nature of subjects' reported blindness. The experimental reactions of reals and simulators were essentially different. The research is discussed in terms of the issues that need to be considered in the development of a model of hypnotic blindness.

Adult↗
PubMed1976

Complexity and measurement of hypnotic susceptibility: a comment on Coe and Sarbin's alternative interpretation.

Coe and Sarbin's claim that a single role skill dimension accounts for individual differences in hypnotizability is not supported by an empirical analysis. We suggest that current measures of hypnotic susceptibility are not only factorially complex but contain a sizable nonhypnotic variance component. Implications for the assessment of "true" hypnotic susceptibility are discussed.

Female↗
PubMed1981

Hypnotic susceptibility as related to gestalt closure tasks.

The investigation was concerned primarily with the relationship of gestalt closure tasks to hypnotizability on a test of the hypothesis that the more highly hypnotizable do better on a task of holistic visuospatial functioning than those less responsive to hypnosis. Several other cognitive tasks were included: visualization, disembedding of hidden figures, and syllogistic reasoning. Sex differences were inconsistent in the four studies reported. In Study 1 (22 male and 20 female university students), high hypnotizables scored significantly higher than low hypnotizables on the gestalt closure tasks, but there were no significant correlations between hypnotizability and the other cognitive tasks. In Study 2 (25 male and 25 female university students) and Study 3 (41 male and 37 female university students), females showed significant correlations between hypnotic susceptibility and gestalt closure scores. In Study 4 (37 male and 27 female high school students), a significant correlation between hypnotic susceptibility and gestalt closure was found for males. The results are consistent with studies of different types of cognitive functioning (hemispheric preference, creativity, attentional distribution, imaginative involvement, and absorption), all indicating differences in cognitive abilities associated with high hypnotizability.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1987

Enhancing hypnotic susceptibility: interpersonal and rapport factors.

This research supported the hypothesis that hypnosis can be thought of as a set of potentially modifiable social-cognitive skills and attitudes. A low-interpersonal-training treatment devised by Gorassini and Spanos (1986) was compared with a treatment designed to modify not only cognitive factors but also to augment rapport with the trainer and diminish resistance to responding (high-interpersonal training). Fifty percent of the initially unhypnotizable subjects in the high-interpersonal condition tested as being highly susceptible to hypnosis (high susceptibles) at posttest on the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility (Shor & Orne, 1962); 25% of the unhypnotizable subjects in the low-interpersonal condition responded comparably. Eighty-three percent of the medium-susceptibility (medium susceptibles) subjects tested as being highly susceptible at posttest in both conditions. Practice-alone control subjects' performance was stable across testings. The study was the first to demonstrate that treatment gains generalize to a battery of novel, demanding suggestions (generalization index) that have been found to differentiate highly susceptible subjects from unhypnotizable simulating subjects. The importance of rapport was evidenced by the finding that rapport ratings paralleled group differences in hypnotic responding and that rapport correlated substantially with susceptibility scores at posttest and with the generalization index. Whereas initial hypnotizability scores correlated significantly with retest susceptibility scores, initial hypnotizability failed to correlate significantly with the generalization index.

Attitude↗
PubMed1988

Some operationalizations of the neodissociation concept and their relationship to hypnotic susceptibility.

We operationalized and tested E. R. Hilgard's (1973a, 1977b) neodissociation theory. His work suggested that the dissociation necessary for experiencing hypnotic phenomena may be attributable to a general capacity for dissociation that should be measurable outside of the domain of hypnosis. We used several types of operational definitions and tasks in order to capture a wide range of meanings. The performances of 169 undergraduates on clerical/motor and cognitive tasks in selective attention and divided attention conditions, as well as the degree of incidental learning, were correlated with scores on the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility. The results do not support a neodissociation theory despite the study's respectable convergent-discriminant validity. Although conceptual and methodological considerations were noted, the results may indicate an important limitation of the explanatory power of E. R. Hilgard's neodissociation theory.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Multiple hypnotizabilities: differentiating the building blocks of hypnotic response.

Although hypnotizability can be conceptualized as involving component subskills, standard measures do not differentiate them from a more general unitary trait, partly because the measures include limited sets of dichotomous items. To overcome this, the authors applied full-information factor analysis, a sophisticated analytic approach for dichotomous items, to a large data set from 2 hypnotizability scales. This analysis yielded 4 subscales (Direct Motor, Motor Challenge, Perceptual-Cognitive, Posthypnotic Amnesia) that point to the building blocks of hypnotic response. The authors then used the subscales as simultaneous predictors of hypnotic responses in 4 experiments to distinguish the contribution of each component from general hypnotizability. This analysis raises interesting questions about how best to conceptualize and advance measurement of the ability to experience hypnosis.

Adult↗
PubMed1981

Pharmacoelectroencephalographic study of brotizolam, a novel hypnotic.

The effects on the quantitative EEG and behavior of two doses (0.1 and 0.3 mg) of the novel sedative compound brotizolam were compared to those of 10 mg flurazepam and placebo in a crossover study in 11 normal men. The effects of 0.1 mg brotizolam were equivalent in intensity and duration to those of 10 mg flurazepam, while the 0.3-mg dose of brotizolam was approximately three times as active. The relative physiologic equivalence of doses of brotizolam and flurazepam is 1 to 100. In its EEG profile, brotizolam is classified as a hypnotic-sedative substance. Its suggested use is as a substitute for established benzodiazepines that have hypnotic, sedative, and anticonvulsant activities.

Administration, Oral↗