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Hugo De Vries' letter written to Léon Guignard dated November 12, 1899, has been found in a heap of books for a destruction. In this letter De Vries compliments his colleague for the discovery of double fertilization and provide an experimental proof of the mechanism of xenia.
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From the early XIXth century, studies of plant associations in relation to their different environments arose in geobotany, next to classical studies of species distribution. This trend in research was perpetuated and may explain some characteristics of the reception in France of American scientific ecology. Thus, during the interwar years, the Zürich-Montpellier school of phytosociology made possible important progress in bringing to the fore the discontinuities in vegetation. However, it hindered ecological research from the approach of plant associations dynamics, hence to ideas in systems ecology, while works on these subjects were successfully carried out at the same time in the USA. Nevertheless, several researchers (geobotanists, microbiologists or biocoenologists) worked within a conceptual framework that was in harmony with American studies on biotic communities.
The scientific commission to Central America originated like a continuation of the three big botanical Spanish expeditions being carried out during the reign of Carlos III through the American territories. The presence of the naturalists José Longinos Martínez and José Mociño, and the painter Vicente de la Cerda at the capital of Guatemala was reason of great interest in the "Capitanía General", and it caused great impact on the Enlightened institutions of the time. Friends' of the Country Economical Society and the Consulado of commerce supported the works of the members of the expedition contributing to the institutionalization of the Natural History in Central America.
The creation of a Botanical Garden in La Habana, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, was due to the efforts of the Real Sociedad Patriótica of La Havana and those of Martín de Sessé in 1795, member of the Botanical Expedition to Nueva España, who was commissioner for the recognition of natural productions and the organization of botanical studies and gardens at the colonies. The arrival of Sessé awakened the interest of some members of the Real Sociedad Patriótica with respect to the proposition made in 1793. A few years later, the Havana Garden was a reality.
The new model, economical and political, devised by the enlightened Spanish was going to propagate the execution of an ambitious, utopian and, in certain manner, original, plan of reconnaissance and exploitation of the colonial American facilities with evident tints monopolists. The development of this idea demanded the knowledge and the inventory of the natural resources as previous stage to the process of commercialization. The institutional development of this project is today very well-known. Being over from the commencement of the XIXth century, the heavy "bureaucratic" machine still more sluggish because of the entrance of the French troops to Spain, it will allow that the final outcome were delayed until 1831.
My purpose, on this work, is to illustrate the central role that plays the visual representations on the botanical exploration. I used documents (graphics and written) from the school of painting of José Celestinno Mutis in Santa Fe de Bogotá, that informs us about artists' training and the process of elaboration of sheets; the same as in the newspapers of Ruiz and Pavón during the publication of the Flora Peruviana. The artist's in the process of classification (construction) of new species active function stands out.
During the kingdoms of the New Granada, the first plan of teaching which was presented by the botanical department was made during the Viceroy Caballero y Góngora (1787). Later, beginning in the 19th century, during the political and ideological repression in the universities, the plans of the Baron Carondelet (1800) were presented with the idea of the creation of the Botanical Department in the University of Quito, and the creole Eloy Valenzuela presented the teaching of botanical studies in the course of study of philosophy in the College-University of Mompox in 1806. He carried out a model of botanical expedition to realize in the villa of Mompox. This was included in the general laws in the College-University of Mompox. These plans were not approved by controversy and administrative procedures. Only, the Plan of Valenzuela had partial application.
Concluding the XVIIIth century, the monarchy of Carlos III patronizes the expedition Malaspina with the goal of exploring the continents of America, Asia and Oceania. On their political aspect the journey persecuted the reformation of the obsolescent colonial Spanish model, and in their scientific facet the development of a project of investigation in agreement with the European interests. Our goal is to define the botanical studies accomplished by the naturalists of the expedition Malaspina in relationship with the scientific policy that from the Royal Botanical Garden from Madrid the Spanish crown projected for their overseas territories.
By this work we pretend to analyze the reasons for the failure of the scientific enlightened politics, utilizing as example the study, from the beginning until the final of its existence, of a scientific institution, the Botanical Office. Created in full process of decadence of the political and economical enlightened model, it was capable of carrying out a great economical and organizational effort and on the botanical expeditions to the Spanish America, but it didn't undertake, in an effective way, a following step, to show to the world the natural wealth of the American possessions.
The discovery of new agricultural and alimentary possibilities was one of the most important motives of the numerous scientific expeditions sent to America during the XVIIIth century. Some french scientists (naturalists, medical, botanical, etc.) undertook, during the second half of the Enlightenment century, an active campaign in favor of the potato consumption. The most well-known was the pharmacist Parmentier that settled his propaganda upon political arguments (the potato gives of eating all the population), economical (it is an easy plant of cultivating and of good efficiency), and scientific (excellent nutritious qualities).
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John Fothergill, M.D., (1712-1780) was one of the best-known physicians in London in the 18th century. He was a botanical collector, a philanthropist, and an active member of the Society of Friends. He entertained and advised a series of young doctors from the American colonies and strove with his friend, Benjamin Franklin, to avert the Revolutionary War, albeit unsuccessfully. A rare glimpse of Dr. Fothergill, the man, and his domestic life is given in the diary of his 17-year-old niece, Betty Fothergill, who spent the winter of 1769-70 in her uncle's household. Excerpts from the diary show him to be a liberal-minded man and one fond of the company of young people; and show Betty to be a sprightly young Quakeress, buffeted by emotional conflicts between loyalty to her north-country fiance and her flirtation with young Dr. John Coakley Lettsom.
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