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PubMed2006

Do adult readers know how they read? Evidence from eye movement patterns and verbal reports.

The present study was carried out to investigate individual differences in reading styles among competent adult readers and to examine whether readers are aware of their reading style. Individual reading strategies were studied by having the participants read a long expository text while their eye fixation patterns were registered. A cluster analysis was performed on the eye movement data to distinguish between different reading styles. The analysis revealed three types of readers that were coined, following Hyönä, Lorch, and Kaakinen (2002), fast linear readers, slow linear readers, and topic structure processors. Readers' procedural awareness of their reading behaviour was assessed by a questionnaire. The verbal reports obtained by the questionnaire were then correlated with the corresponding eye behaviour to investigate the extent to which the readers behave the way they report doing. The correlations showed that adult readers are well aware of their general reading speed and reasonably aware of their lookback and rereading behaviour. The amount of time spent looking back in text also correlated positively with the relative success in recalling the main points expressed in the text. It is concluded that systematic and extensive looking back in text is indicative of strategic behaviour.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Phonemic awareness and reading ability: an investigation with young readers who are deaf.

The study examined the relationship between phonemic awareness and reading ability in students who are deaf. The research questions were: (a) What is the relationship between phonemic awareness and reading ability in students who are deaf? (b) Does phonemic awareness facilitate the reading development of these students? Participants were 29 children of primary school age enrolled in a residential school for students who are deaf. The dependent variable, reading ability, was measured by a retelling task. The independent variables were age, language ability, and phonemic awareness. Language ability was determined through expert analysis of participant interviews. Phonemic awareness was measured with a word-to-word matching task. Descriptive techniques and multiple regression analysis were employed to analyze the data. Results indicated that reading ability was significantly correlated to language ability, but not to phonemic awareness. Phonemic awareness did not contribute to any of the variance in reading ability. The study results call into question the role of phonemic awareness as a prerequisite for reading development.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1993

Reading comprehension of deaf readers. The impact of too many or too few questions.

Reading comprehension need not be considered to be an elusive construct; for most readers, nonclinical reading problems can be viewed simply as a process influenced by readers' questions. Most reading comprehension difficulties of deaf readers can be addressed in a straightforward and effective manner once it has been determined whether the reader has too few or too many questions while reading. This article explains the relationship between the number and type of questions deaf readers have and their comprehension of the reading material. It also describes intervention strategies that can be used to improve comprehension. The article is intended for teachers and other professionals who work with deaf students, deaf adults who have reading problems, and parents who have a deaf child with a reading problem.

Deafness↗
PubMed1990

Psychophysics of reading. XI. Comparing color contrast and luminance contrast.

Text can be depicted by luminance contrast (i.e., differences in luminance between characters and background) or by color contrast (i.e., differences in chromaticity). We used a psychophysical method to measure the reading speeds of eight normal and ten low-vision subjects for text displayed on a color monitor. Reading speed was measured as a function of luminance contrast, color contrast (derived from mixtures of red and green), and combinations of the two. When color contrast is high, normal subjects can read as rapidly as with high luminance contrast (greater than 300 words/min). Curves of reading speed versus contrast have the same shape for the two forms of contrast and are superimposed when contrast is measured in multiples of a threshold value. When both color and luminance contrast are present, there is no sign of additive interaction, and performance is determined by the form of contrast yielding the highest reading rate. Our findings suggest that color contrast and luminance contrast are coded in similar ways in the visual system but that the neural signals used in letter recognition are carried by different pathways for color and luminance. We found no advantages of color contrast for low-vision reading. For text composed of 6 degrees characters, all low-vision subjects read better with luminance contrast than with color contrast.

Adult↗
PubMed1995

Reading abilities of drug users in Anchorage, Alaska.

Evaluated the reading abilities of 122 male and fifty-nine female intravenous and other drug users in Anchorage, Alaska. Reading abilities were assessed through the Reading subtest of the Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised and the short Form of the Woodcock Reading Mastery Test-Revised. Results indicated that men and Black subjects reported the highest levels of schooling completed. However, no differences were revealed across gender and ethnicity in actual reading levels. Among all subjects, the average reading ability was between 8.5 and 8.7 grade level. These scores place the average subject reading at a level lower than approximately 76 percent of the general population. Implications are provided for development of educational materials accessible for this population.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Effects on reading performance of indention patterns in a Chinese sign.

This study investigated the effects of the use of indention in a public Chinese sign which can provide the reader with cues for the appropriate eye direction for reading a sign which facilitates reading. The between-subjects design had repeated observations on the indention design. The right or left column was indented in a Chinese sign of only two columns. 144 college students in Taiwan who served as subjects were divided into two groups by their reading comprehension and shown stimuli in a tachistoscope. Analysis showed that an indented design significantly reduced reading time but did not change accuracy rate. This result was consistent with the results of Duchnicky and Kolers' 1983 study and indicated that a reader can maintain accuracy while reducing reading time when reading a text designed with different kinds of indention layout. These results might aid designers of Chinese warning signs, especially for readers with lower reading scores.

Adult↗
PubMed1988

Training versus nontraining of mothers as home reading tutors.

The effectiveness of training mothers as home reading tutors was assessed using a sample of 42 mother-child pairs. The children were aged 8 to 9 yr. Analyses showed that the amount of time parents spent listening to a child read at home was positively related to both reading accuracy and comprehension scores. A short group-program training mothers as home reading tutors achieved the anticipated changes in mothers' behaviours: delayed intervention, increased use of meaning and contextual cues rather than direct word prompts, and greater use of praise. Children's reading accuracy was marginally improved and reading comprehension was significantly increased as a result of training the mothers as home reading tutors.

Achievement↗
PubMed1991

Event related potentials recorded in normal and dyslexic subjects when reading in and out of context.

Clinical evidence has shown that expectancy or anticipatory reactions influence the ability to read. It is possible that the reading problems shown by dyslexic children could be due to the absence of anticipatory hypotheses when they decode verbal material. Research was therefore carried out into these clinical observations to see if they could be detected on an electrophysiological level using a technique for recording Event Related Potentials (ERPs). In this study, our intention was to observe if there were any differences between a sample population of normal children and one of dyslexic children in the ERPs recorded on the presentation of words both in and out of context. The words recorded during the reading in context were: the word "la" (the feminine article "the" in Spanish), an "intermediate" word and a "final" word in a series of sentences. The first two have a greater anticipatory load than the reading of the final word since this is the word that closes the meaning of the sentence. Furthermore, as a control, the ERPs that were produced when reading isolated words were recorded, a situation that does not require the presence of anticipatory processes. The control group was made up of subjects with adequate school performance and no pathological background, and the experimental group was composed of subjects whose performance on a psychoeducational battery, previously administered to 120 Mexican children, had been found to be two standard deviations below the established norms. Following the 10-20 international system, electrodes were placed in zones F3, Cz, P3, O1 and O2 and referred to both earlobes. Statistical analysis revealed significant differences between groups in the amplitude of the ERP recording in the left occipital zone for all conditions when reading in sentences ("la," "intermediate" and "final"). It is suggested that this cortical zone participates in decoding verbal material and that it is deficient in subjects with reading problems.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Contextual knowledge reduces demands on working memory during reading.

An experiment is reported in which young, middle-aged, and older adults read and recalled ambiguous texts either with or without the topic title that supplied contextual knowledge. Within each of the age groups, the participants were divided into those with high or low working memory (WM) spans, with available WM capacity further manipulated by the presence or absence of an auditory target detection task concurrent with the reading task. Differences in reading efficiency (reading time per proposition recalled) between low WM span and high WM span groups were greater among readers who had access to contextual knowledge relative to those who did not, suggesting that contextual knowledge reduces demands on WM capacity. This position was further supported by the finding that increased age and attentional demands, two factors associated with reduced WM capacity, exaggerated the benefits of contextual knowledge on reading efficiency. The relative strengths of additional potential predictors of reading efficiency (e.g., interest, effort, and memory beliefs), along with knowledge, WM span, and age, are reported. Findings showed that contextual knowledge was the strongest predictor of reading efficiency even after controlling for the effects of all of the other predictors.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1989

Chart reading and anxiety levels of nursing students prior to first interactions with psychiatric clients.

Nursing students' anxiety levels on the first day of their psychiatric clinical experience were compared between those students who were assigned to read (N = 58) or not read (N = 60) the client's chart prior to the first nurse-client interaction. Students' trait and state anxiety levels were measured at the beginning of the day. State anxiety levels were measured again after students were given instructions to read or not read the client's chart. Using trait and the first measure of state anxiety as covariates, there was no significant difference in the state anxiety scores between readers and non-readers. Based on anxiety theory, it was concluded that being told to read/not read the psychiatric client's record prior to the first interaction with the client, does not significantly influence the student's state anxiety level. Thus, when nurse educators are planning the psychiatric experience, they may wish to allow the student to make the decision whether to read or not read the client's chart, after being told the advantages and disadvantages of this action.

Anxiety↗
PubMed1996

[Reading ability of elementary school children: a componential analysis].

It was hypothesized that there are three independent levels of reading processing: Letter and word level, sentence level, and discourse level. Reading speed of 117 fifth-grade children were assessed, and clause length, position in each sentence, and position in passage were found to affect the speed independently. These features therefore must correspond respectively to the levels mentioned above. Since working memory capacity possibly determined the functioning of the three levels, reading span as the capacity was assessed in the study and incorporated into a multivariate path model, in order to predict ability in reading comprehension. The span and vocabulary explained the child's general reading ability. The ability together with domain specific knowledge explained the child's domain specific reading comprehension. Finally, the applicability of those findings to the programs to assist children who have difficulty in reading comprehension was discussed.

Child↗
PubMed2000

Impaired reading in patients with right hemianopia.

A left occipital stroke may result in alexia for two reasons, which may coexist depending on the distribution of the lesion. A lesion of the left lateroventral prestriate cortex or its afferents impairs word recognition ("pure" alexia). If the left primary visual cortex or its afferents are destroyed, resulting in a complete right homonymous hemianopia, rightward saccades during text reading are disrupted ("hemianopic" alexia). By using functional imaging, we showed two separate but interdependent systems involved in reading. The first, subserving word recognition, involved the representation of foveal vision in the left and right primary visual cortex and the ventral prestriate cortex. The second system, responsible for the planning and execution of reading saccades, consisted of the representation of right parafoveal vision in the left visual cortex, the bilateral posterior parietal cortex (left > right), and the frontal eye fields (right > left). Disruption of this distributed neural system was demonstrated in patients with severe right homonymous hemianopia, commensurate with their inability to perform normal reading eye movements. Text reading, before processes involved in comprehension, requires the integration of perceptual and motor processes. We have demonstrated these distributed neural systems in normal readers and have shown how a right homonymous hemianopia disrupts the motor preparation of reading saccades during text reading.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

A comparison of patient reading performance and preference: optical devices, handheld CCTV (Innoventions Magni-Cam), or stand-mounted CCTV (Optelec Clearview or TSI Genie).

BACKGROUND: Clinicians frequently prescribe reading devices for low vision patients having a central field loss. This study seeks to provide comparative information the clinician can use to assist patients in selecting the most cost-effective device(s) for reading. METHOD: In this study we compared optical devices with two types of closed-circuit televisions (CCTVs) that differed in two important characteristics: price, and whether the camera was stand-mounted with an X-Y table or whether the camera was handheld. A "within-subjects" design was used with 22 subjects. The primary comparisons between devices were subject reading speed, duration, and preference. RESULTS: Subject reading speed and duration were significantly greater with the CCTV systems than with optical devices; however, no significant performance differences were found between the two types of CCTVs. Patients did express a clear preference for one versus the other type of CCTV, with an overall preference for the stand-mounted system. When asked to consider the price differential between types of CCTVs, patient preferences were about equally divided. CONCLUSIONS: Clinicians can expect significantly better initial reading performance for patients with central visual-field losses when reading with CCTVs versus optical devices. Handheld CCTVs, when compared with stand-mounted systems, are less expensive, provide equal performance, and have slightly lower subject preference ratings. The current study provides clinicians with objective performance data and subjective preference data that can be used to help patients with central visual-field losses select the most cost-effective reading device.

Aged↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Reach Out and Read: a pediatric clinic-based approach to early literacy promotion.

Approximately 90 million adults in the United States read at a level that limits their ability to function as full members of society or limits their ability to meet their basic needs. Reading success as an adult is related to early literacy experiences. Reading aloud by parents is the single most critical factor in a child's reading success later in life. Children in households where there is little exposure to reading are at risk for reading failure even before entering school. As primary health care providers, pediatric nurse practitioners are in a unique position to affect and encourage parental behaviors that foster early literacy development in children. Literacy should become incorporated as an integral component of health promotion for children. Reach Out and Read is a successful literacy program in the United States that can be easily adopted by pediatric nurse practitioners in primary care settings.

Child↗
PubMed2002

Exposure to Reach Out and Read and vocabulary outcomes in inner city preschoolers.

To examine the association between exposure to Reach Out and Read and vocabulary outcomes in children, a consecutive sample of 200 parent/child pairs was studied at two inner-city health centers. Children at clinic A were exposed to Reach Out and Read, a clinic-based literacy intervention, for 3 years at the time of the study; children at clinic B were unexposed. Main outcome measures were the "Expressive and Receptive One Word Picture Vocabulary Tests" to measure vocabulary in the children and the "Home Literacy Orientation" scale and "READ" subscale of the STIMQ, to measure book-sharing activities. A total of 200 subjects participated, and the mean age of children was 3.8 years. Demographic characteristics were comparable for both clinics at baseline. Exposed children scored higher on receptive vocabulary (81.5 vs. 74.3; p = 0.005). They also scored higher on both the Home Literacy Orientation scale (4.3 vs. 3.3; p = 0.002) and the STIMQ-READ (12.6 vs. 11.0; p = 0.056). There were no differences in expressive vocabulary scores between the two sites (79.5 vs. 77.5; p = 0.26). In conclusion, we found a positive association between exposure to Reach Out and Read and better receptive vocabulary scores. We also found higher scores for Reach Out and Read-exposed children on measures of home reading activities.

Chi-Square Distribution↗
PubMed2002

The relationship between reading beauty and fashion magazines and the use of pathogenic dieting methods among adolescent females.

This study examined the relationship between reading women's beauty and fashion magazines and the use of pathogenic dieting methods (laxatives, appetite suppressants/diet pills, skipping two meals a day, intentional vomiting, and restricting calories to 1,200 or less each day) among 502 high school females. Weak to moderate positive associations were found between reading frequency and each of these unhealthful practices except the use of laxatives. When controlling for anxiety about weight and frequency of regular exercise, however, the original bivariate relations between reading frequency and skipping two meals a day, and reading and intentional vomiting, disappeared. Replication and weak specification effects were found when examining the relationships between reading and taking appetite suppressant/weight control pills, and reading and restricting calories, under the control conditions. These findings suggest that two of the most common adolescent dieting methods--restricting calories and taking diet pills--appear to be influenced by the reading of women's beauty and fashion magazines.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1991

The effect of oculomotor training on reading efficiency.

The purpose of this study was to record and measure, by means of a microcomputer, the reading eye movements and reading efficiency of a sample of "poor readers" from an adult, professional school population. A program of oculomotor skill enhancement training was given to 10 students who failed an academically appropriate reading test. Their pre- and post-training reading performance was compared to that of a group of students who also failed the reading test but received no such training. All subjects' eye movements were monitored and recorded individually while reading, using a Visagraph Eye-Movement Recording System. The subjects were split into an experimental group (receiving training) and a control group (receiving no training). Following a 12-hour program of "in office" and "home" training, the group receiving oculomotor training showed trends toward improved reading eye movement efficiency (number of regressions, number of fixations and span of recognition), compared to that of the untrained group.

Dyslexia↗
PubMed1984

Inkbraille as a potential new reading system for the blind.

Inkbraille, a reduced size ink-image version of the familiar braille code, was conceived in an attempt to sidestep the major disadvantages of embossed braille, while retaining the unsurpassed reading rates achieved by the blind using that code. Inkbraille would ultimately be translated by a specially designed hand-held electronic device with appropriate tactile output. Such a device is not yet available, so in this study we test the readability of Inkbraille when read by means of a commercially available electronic reading aid, the Optacon, which presents its output tactually on a field of vibrating pins which are sensed with a finger. Three modes of tactual reading were compared: conventional embossed braille, and the Opticon's vibrating-pinfield presentation of typed letters and its presentation of Inkbraille. All subjects were able to read Inkbraille upon initial exposure. Subjects who were tested in multiple sessions exhibited significant increases in Inkbraille reading rates after only limited exposure. Since Inkbraille and letterprint reading rates were the same in this study, the results led the authors to conclude that a rate limitation may have been imposed by the device (the Optacon) that was used to translate both the Inkbraille and the letterprint.

Blindness↗