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PubMed1994

Shunning retirement: work experience of men in their seventies and early eighties.

Using data from the National Longitudinal Surveys (NLS) of Older Men, this study examined the extent and character of the work experience of men who opt to continue labor force participation well beyond conventional retirement age. Logistic regression results showed that good health, a strong psychological commitment to work, and a corresponding distaste for retirement are among the most important characteristics related to continued employment into old age. The probability of employment was also found to be positively related to educational attainment and being married to a working wife; it was negatively related to age and level of income in the absence of work. Of the men in the sample who were not working, very few gave evidence of a desire to do so. Policy implications of the findings are explored.

Aged↗
PubMed1994

Women's work and caregiving roles: a life course approach.

This study drew on a life course approach and a sample of 293 women from four birth cohorts in upstate New York to examine the relationship over time between women's paid work and their informal caregiving of aging or infirm relatives. We find that such caregiving is an increasingly likely role for women, both as they age and across birth cohorts. One in four (24%) women became caregivers at some time between ages 35-44, and over one in three (36%) of these same women became caregivers between ages 55-64. Only 45 percent of the oldest cohort (born 1905-1917) were ever caregivers, compared to 64 percent of the most cohort (born 1927-1934), an increase of almost 20 percent. Clearly changes in the labor force participation of more recent cohorts of women do not appear to alter their caregiving responsibilities. In fact, women in this sample were equally likely to become caregivers, regardless of whether or not they were employed.

Adult↗
PubMed1989

Why older Americans stop working.

Recently economics researchers have suggested that most persons respond to economic incentives in choosing when to retire, although a small percentage exit the labor force because of deteriorating health. Although recent and proposed changes in the social security system are likely to have only small effects on retirement behavior, larger impacts could ensue from altering the incentives implicit in many private pension plans. Little is known about the transition process that follows the end of career jobs and precedes retirement: this represents an important area for future research.

Aged↗
PubMed1990

Retirement prospects of the baby boom generation: a different perspective.

We examine the average economic status of baby boom cohorts as they approach retirement chiefly using data on their life cycle income experience to date. Contrary to popular impression, baby boomers are likely to enter old age in an even better economic position than pre-boom cohorts. Economic and demographic adjustments that they made, such as deferred marriages, reduced childbearing, and increased labor force participation of wives, have compensated for their relatively low wage rates. Potential downside effects of reduced childbearing regarding Social Security and health care prospects are discussed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1993

Amenity retirement migration process: a model and preliminary evidence.

A heuristic model of the retirement migration process was developed and explored using survey data from 586 migrants to western North Carolina. Five distinct subgroups were investigated: those who went from part- to full-time residency; those who thought about not migrating; individuals who migrated, remained in the labor force for a short period, and then retired; people who made two retirement migrations; and destination-selecting versus destination-specific migrants.

Adult↗
PubMed1995

Understanding ageism: lessons from feminism and postmodernism.

I argue that ageism is a set of oppressive social relations directed at and constructed in images of the aged body. Drawing from feminist and postmodern theorists I suggest that we must avoid essentialism, be sensitive to historical and geographical variations in the form of ageism, focus on the contested nature of the aged body and associated identities, and reject attempts at universalizing scholarship. I suggest that our work focus on five sites of struggle around ageist identities: the labor force, the household, popular culture, the state, and the built environment, each of which is involved in the construction and reconstruction of the aged body.

Aged↗
PubMed1996

The precious and the precocious: understanding cumulative disadvantage and cumulative advantage over the life course.

The explanation of increasing heterogeneity and inequality within aging cohorts is a central concern of the life-course perspective and common ground for demographers, economists, historians, sociologists, and psychologists alike. Income and wealth inequality among the aged is one area of shared interest where cross-disciplinary fertilization is occurring. While indices of aged economic inequality applied across different data sets replicate the level of inequality among the elderly, theoretical and methodological concerns are focused more and more on identifying and specifying the long-term interactions between institutional and life-course processes producing this outcome. Institutional mechanisms incorporated in opportunity structures such as labor markets and pensions stratify the availability of resources and rewards, and they interact with life-course processes related to labor force history and job mobility to produce complex patterns of cumulative advantage and cumulative disadvantage. However, the examination of long-term mechanisms of stratification requires finer-grained observations of work, employer, and pension histories than current data-collection strategies afford. Two biases--the steady worker bias and the one pension bias--are inherent in most longitudinal data bases and hamper progress in our understanding of the production of aged inequality.

Aged↗
PubMed1996

Human resource policies and older workers in Japan.

Substantial changes in human resource policies are occurring in Japanese firms in response to the rapid aging of the population. Employers are reconsidering the concept of lifetime employment, seniority-based wages, retirement policies, and employment opportunities for older workers. In response to government pressure, mandatory retirement ages are being raised. These trends are examined using a variety of sources of information concerning employment practices in Japan. The analysis indicates that important changes in human resource management practices are underway and further changes are anticipated as the labor force continues to age.

Aged↗
PubMed2006

Effect of staff turnover on staffing: A closer look at registered nurses, licensed vocational nurses, and certified nursing assistants.

PURPOSE: We examined the effects of facility and market-level characteristics on staffing levels and turnover rates for direct care staff, and we examined the effect of staff turnover on staffing levels. DESIGN AND METHODS: We analyzed cross-sectional data from 1,014 Texas nursing homes. Data were from the 2002 Texas Nursing Facility Medicaid Cost Report and the Area Resource File for 2003. After examining factors associated with staff turnover, we tested the significance and impact of staff turnover on staffing levels for registered nurses (RNs), licensed vocational nurses (LVNs) and certified nursing assistants (CNAs). RESULTS: All three staff types showed strong dependency on resources, such as reimbursement rates and facility payor mix. The ratio of contracted to employed nursing staff as well as RN turnover increased LVN turnover rates. CNA turnover was reduced by higher administrative expenditures and higher CNA wages. Turnover rates significantly reduced staffing levels for RNs and CNAs. LVN staffing levels were not affected by LVN turnover but were influenced by market factors such as availability of LVNs in the county and women in the labor force. IMPLICATIONS: Staffing levels are not always associated with staff turnover. We conclude that staff turnover is a predictor of RN and CNA staffing levels but that LVN staffing levels are associated with market factors rather than turnover. Therefore, it is important to focus on management initiatives that help reduce CNA and RN turnover and ultimately result in higher nurse staffing levels in nursing homes.

Cross-Sectional Studies↗
PubMed2006

In retirement migration, who counts? A methodological question with economic policy implications.

PURPOSE: We examine the methodological and economic policy implications of three operations of retirement migration. DESIGN AND METHODS: We compared the traditional age-based definition of retirement migration and two retirement-based definitions, based on degree of labor-force participation and retirement income, by using the 2000 U.S. Census Public Use Microdata Sample. RESULTS: The age-based definition overestimated the number of retired migrants, although the ranking of host and donor states remained relatively stable; nevertheless, states revealed different rates of change in inmigration and outmigration and income streams declined. IMPLICATIONS: Retirement-based definitions are more useful and precise for those researchers considering the economic implication of retirement migration.

Humans↗
PubMed1994

Food and families' socioeconomic status.

This paper explores the relationship between food expenditures and consumption patterns and families' socioeconomic status in the United States. Three themes follow through the paper. One is that as income rises over time and across socioeconomic groups, a smaller percent of that income is spent of food. Simultaneously, a larger percent of the food dollar buys services and food preparation moves farther away from the home. Second, characteristics of people like age and ethnicity contribute to diversity in food consumption but labor force participation by women has led the trend in away-from-home-food preparation. New scientific information and technology have changed attitudes about nutrition and food safety and their linkages to health. Finally, the continuous introduction of affordable new foods into the diet and culture of families in all socioeconomic groups has been a quiet evolution. Trying to differentiate socioeconomic groups in the United States by their food and nutritional status is almost a nonstory except for fascinating intragroup diversities that change rapidly in the postmodern society.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1996

Cigarette smoking among U.S. adults by state and region: estimates from the current population survey.

BACKGROUND: Cigarette smoking is responsible for at least one third of all cancer deaths annually in the United States. Few sources exist in the peer-reviewed literature documenting state and regional differences in smoking behavior, despite the fact that cancer prevention and control efforts are increasingly being implemented below the national level. PURPOSE: Our goals were to determine smoking prevalence rates among men and women, by region, and for each of the 50 states and the District of Columbia from census survey data collected in 1992 and 1993 and to compare these rates with rates determined in 1985. METHODS: Every month, the U.S. Bureau of the Census collects labor force statistics on more than 100000 individuals on its Current Population Survey (CPS). For the September 1992, January 1993, and May 1993 CPS, the National Cancer Institute sponsored a 40-item Tobacco Use Supplement. The definition of a current smoker changed slightly between 1985 and 1992-1993. For the 1985 CPS, individuals were considered current smokers if they had smoked 100 cigarettes in their lifetime and were smoking at the time of interview; for the 1992-1993 CPS, current smokers included anyone who had smoked 100 cigarettes and was currently smoking every day or just on some days. We calculated current smoking rates (every day and some days combined) based on more than a quarter million adults (n = 266988) interviewed in 1992-1993. RESULTS: Substantial geographic variation exists in rates of current cigarette use among adults within the United States. In general, adults in the southern United States have higher rates of smoking and adults in the western states have lower rates of smoking and adults in the rest of the country, although differences in smoking behavior between men and women and among various racial and ethnic populations strongly influence these patterns. Only two states, Kentucky and West Virginia, exhibited adult smoking rates (men and women combined) of 30% or higher in 1992-1993; in contrast, in 1985, such rates were reported from 20 states. The only states in which the prevalence was below 20% in 1992-1993 were Utah (17.1%) and California (19.5%). Rates approaching 20% were reported from New Jersey (20.7%), Massachusetts (21.5%), and Nebraska, New York, and Hawaii (22.0% each) in 1992-1993. Rhode Island experienced the greatest relative decline in smoking prevalence from 1985 to 1992-1993, with a calculated relative change of -30.7% (based on a change in rate from 33.5% to 23.2%), followed by Delaware (-25.9%) the District of Columbia and New Jersey (-23.9% each), Connecticut (-23.2%), California (-22.9%), Alaska (-22.8%), Georgia (-22.6%), Massachusetts (-22.1%), and New York (-22.0%). CONCLUSIONS: Smoking rates are not uniform in the United States but vary considerably from state to state, even within the same region of the country. The CPS is the only mechanism currently capable of simultaneously monitoring smoking trends nationally, regionally, and on a state-by-state basis.

Age Distribution↗
PubMed2005

Psychological distress among marginalized women in the outskirts of beirut: determinants and association with health perception.

The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of psychological distress (PD) and its determinants in under-privileged women in the outskirts of Beirut, Lebanon. A cross-sectional survey of 1,869 ever-married women aged 15-59 was carried out. PD levels were determined using the 12-item General Health Questionnaire (Appendix). Health status, living conditions, social support, and physical symptoms as reported by women were recorded. Logistic regression was used to test the independent effect of each variable on PD. 46.6% of women had PD. Psychologically distressed women had more children, less education, lower income, less social support, an uncomfortable relationship with their husband, participated in the labor force and were more likely to reside in a predominantly Moslem community. Reporting a health or living problem were significant predictors of PD. The presence of limb, back and stomach pain, and headache were associated with PD. Compared to similar populations in other countries, our sample had a high prevalence of mental distress.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1988

Components and modifiers of the healthy worker effect: evidence from three occupational cohorts and implications for industrial compensation.

The authors examined the components and modifiers of the healthy worker effect using mortality data from three occupational cohorts: the employees of Atomic Energy of Canada Limited followed between 1950 and 1981, a 10% sample of the Canadian labor force followed between 1965 and 1979, and workers at the Eldorado Resources Limited Beaverlodge uranium mine followed between 1950 and 1980. Two important components of the healthy worker effect have been identified in these cohorts, namely, initial selection of and continuing employment of healthy individuals. There is less evidence for a contribution from the existence of differential risk factors among employed individuals as compared with the general population. The healthy worker effect is, however, substantially modified by time since employment, sex, age, specific cause of death, and specific occupation. Because of this variation, it is inappropriate to account for the healthy worker effect by a single parameter, and all of the above factors must be taken into account in any appropriate analysis. When the only available comparison group for an occupational cohort is the general population, the healthy worker effect is unlikely to have any substantial influence on the process of assessing causality for any observed association or attributing cause in an individual case. This would be particularly true for cancer, and even more so for lung cancer, a disease often associated with industrial compensation cases.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1992

Air-conditioning and mortality in hot weather.

A cohort of 72,740 persons for whom information on household air-conditioning was available was monitored for mortality via the National Death Index from April 1980 through December 1985. A total of 2,275 deaths occurred among the members of this cohort. The basic question addressed was whether persons in households with air-conditioning experienced lower death rates during hot weather than persons in households without air-conditioning. This question was examined for both central and room air-conditioning. The analysis was based on a state-by-state approach, that cross-tabulated deaths by air-conditioning status (yes or no) and average temperature during the month of death (less than 21.2 degrees C (less than 70 degrees F) or greater than or equal to 21.2 degrees C (greater than or equal to 70 degrees F)). The Mantel-Haenszel and sign tests were used to summarize the data. For central air-conditioning versus no air-conditioning, statistically significant benefits (p less than 0.05, Mantel-Haenszel test) were observed for the overall total, for females, for persons not in the labor force, and for persons living in fewer than six rooms. These groups had more exposure to air-conditioning. The relative risk for the total group was 0.58, implying that in hot weather, the death rate for persons who had central air-conditioning was 42 percent lower than the rate for persons who did not have air-conditioning, after confounding variables had been controlled for. For room air-conditioning versus no air-conditioning, the odds ratio for the total group was 0.96, which was not significantly different from 1.0, suggesting that no real benefit was derived from room air-conditioning. Some reasons for the lack of a demonstrable benefit for room air-conditioning are given.

Aged↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Neighborhood environment, racial position, and risk of police-reported domestic violence: a contextual analysis.

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to examine the contribution of neighborhood socioeconomic conditions to risk of police-reported domestic violence in relation to victim's race. Data on race came from police forms legally mandated for the reporting of domestic violence and sexual assault. METHODS: Using 1990 U.S. census block group data and data for the years 1996-1998 from Rhode Island's domestic violence surveillance system, the authors generated annual and relative risk of police-reported domestic violence and estimates of trends stratified by age, race (black, Hispanic, or white), and neighborhood measures of socioeconomic conditions. Race-specific linear regression models were constructed with average annual risk of police-reported domestic violence as the dependent variable. RESULTS: Across all levels of neighborhood poverty (< 5% to 100% of residents living below the federal poverty level), the risk of police-reported domestic violence was higher for Hispanic and black women than for white women. Results from the linear regression models varied by race. For black women, living in a census block group in which fewer than 10% of adults ages > or = 25 years were college-educated contributed independently to risk of police-reported domestic violence. Block group measures of relative poverty (> or = 20% of residents living below 200% of the poverty line) and unemployment (> or = 10% of adults ages > or = 16 years in the labor force but unemployed) did not add to this excess. For Hispanic women, three neighborhood-level measures were significant: percentage of residents living in relative poverty, percentage of residents without college degrees, and percentage of households monolingual in Spanish. A higher degree of linguistic isolation, as defined by the percentage of monolingual Spanish households, decreased risk among the most isolated block groups for Hispanic women. For white women, neighborhood-level measures of poverty, unemployment, and education were significant determinants of police-reported domestic violence. CONCLUSION: When data on neighborhood conditions at the block group level and their interaction with individual racial position are linked to population-based surveillance systems, domestic violence intervention and prevention efforts can be improved.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1995

Costs of schizophrenia in The Netherlands.

This study tries to identify and estimate the health care costs of schizophrenia in The Netherlands and to determine in a broader sense the total costs of schizophrenia for society in terms of productivity loss caused by absence from work and early retirement. The study can be described as a "cost-of-illness" study based on prevalence data. It shows that in The Netherlands about 2 percent of the total health care budget is spent on the treatment of schizophrenia patients. This figure is rather high, since the prevalence rate of schizophrenia in The Netherlands is only 0.6 percent. The indirect costs--production lost because of absence from work, disability, and early death--were very low, but these costs are underestimated because schizophrenia patients are unlikely to become active participants in the labor force. It is also difficult to identify people who have died of schizophrenia in national data because schizophrenia in itself is not lethal, but individuals with schizophrenia may die because of suicide or violent death.

Absenteeism↗
PubMed2001

Insomnia and health problems in Canadians.

STUDY OBJECTIVES: The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of, and to identify the relative contribution of selected factors associated with insomnia in the Canadian population age 15 and older. DESIGN: Weighted analysis of cross-sectional data from the Canadian General Social Survey, Cycle 6, 1991. Prevalence estimates were calculated for the total and age-specific Canadian population age 15 and older. Multiple logistic regression techniques were employed to study the contribution of an array of sociodemographic, lifestyle, stress, and physical health factors to the experience of insomnia. SETTING: N/A. PARTICIPANTS: A representative sample of the Canadian household population age 15+ (n=11,924). INTERVENTIONS: N/A. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS: Twenty-four percent of the Canadian population age 15+ report insomnia. The following factors were associated with insomnia in multivariate logistic regression: female gender, being widowed or single, low education, low income, not being in the labor force, ever having smoked, life stress, specific chronic physical health problems (circulatory, digestive and respiratory disease, migraine, allergy and rheumatic disorders), pain, activity limitation and health dissatisfaction. Age was not significantly associated with insomnia. CONCLUSIONS: Insomnia was highly prevalent among the non-institutionalized Canadian population age 15 and older. A very stressful life, severe pain and dissatisfaction with one's health demonstrated the highest odds ratios associated with insomnia. Increasing age per se and lifestyle factors were not significantly associated with insomnia.

Adolescent↗