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PubMed1976

Comparison of aggression and incongruity as factors in children's judgments of humor.

It was hypothesized that both aggression and incongruity are variables that will positively influence preschool children's judgments of humorous incidents. Past research has shown the influence of incongruity on humor only for school-age children, and--with the exception of studies of children's television viewing--the allegedly "antisocial" variable of aggression has been ignored. Two hundred and thirty boys and girls from ages three to eight each made six paired comparison judgments as to which of two brief incidents was funnier. The incidents were produced by the E manipulating either one or two hand puppets with or without accompanying dialogue. At all ages children significantly preferred aggressive and incongruous incidents to neutral incidents. When aggressive and incongruous nonverbal incidents were paired, there was no significant preference. Two major conclusions were reached: (a) Though neglected in the developmental theory of humor, aggression is an early occurring and potent factor in children's humor; (b) The clear-cut results obtained from preschoolers argue for the usefulness of cognitive choice as against such observational measures as smiling and laughing.

Aggression↗
PubMed1984

A developmental study of temporal duration judgments.

First, third, fifth, and seventh graders and college students (18 per grade) made four serial reproductions of each of three time intervals, 8, 13, and 32 sec. The results paralleled those of other studies using only adults since both the psychophysical function and the Weber fraction were typical, and magnitude of judgments was an increasing, negatively accelerated function of trials. None of these effects was a function of age nor were there any age effects in an analysis of variable errors. Analysis of first-degree sequential dependency of judgments (using lag correlations) revealed a slight negative recency which was also invariant with age of Ss.

Adult↗
PubMed1976

The effects of perceived status and linguistic diversity upon judgment of speaker attributes and message effectiveness.

It has been shown previosly that high linguistic diversity positively affects listeners' judgments of speaker attributes and message effectiveness. Diversity refers to the degree of lexical and syntactic redundancy in a message. In the present study it was predicted that listeners' initial perceptions of a speaker's status would influence their judgments of high- and low-diversity messages. Ss were 46 male and female undergraduates at The University of Iowa. Three competing predictions were offered, and the results supported a status-attribution explanation. A high-status speaker was rated especially negatively when he delivered a low-diversity message. High- and low-diversity messages did not differ in their evaluative consequences for a low-status speaker; in this case both message types produced ratings that fell between the relatively positive or negative ratings given to the high-status speaker.

Communication↗
PubMed1978

Relationships between self-concept, self-esteem, popularity, and social judgments of junior high school students.

This study examined the relationship between social self-concept and popularity for 93 male and female seventh, eighth, and ninth graders. It also assessed ability to make accurate social judgments and social self-esteem as a function of self-concept. The results revealed a moderate relationship (r = .29) between self-concept and popularity. No evidence was found to suggest that either self-esteem or ability to make accurate social judgments was related to accuracy of self-concept.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2001

Caregivers' judgments of the functional abilities of the Alzheimer's disease patient: a comparison of proxy reports and objective measures.

The assessment of functional capacity is essential for the diagnosis of dementia by DSM-IV criteria and has important implications for patient intervention and management. Although ratings of functional disability by family or other proxy informants are widely used by clinicians, there have been concerns and empirical evidence that potential reporter biases may result in either overestimation or underestimation of specific functional deficits. In this study, we compared family members' judgments of the functional abilities of seventy-two patients diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease (AD). These judgments were compared to actual objective functional performance on an array of real-world tasks using the Direct Assessment of Functional Status (DAFS) scale. The results indicate that caregivers were extremely accurate in predicting the functional performance of AD patients who were not impaired during objective evaluation. In contrast, caregivers significantly overestimated the ability of impaired AD patients to tell time, to identify currency, to make change for a purchase, and to utilize eating utensils. Higher patient MMSE scores were associated with caregivers' overestimation of functional capacity, while the degree of caregivers' depressive symptoms, as measured by the CES-D depression scale, was not related to either overestimation or underestimation of patients' functional performance.

Activities of Daily Living↗
PubMed1994

Age differences in same-different judgments as a function of multidimensional similarity.

Age deficits in visual search often are attributed to difficulties in comparing display items to target representations. In the presence-absence search paradigm, however, these comparisons are frequently confounded with age differences in the latency and velocity of saccadic eye movements, reductions in the useful field of view (FOV), and retention of information concerning previously searched locations. To circumvent these shortcomings, 20 young and 20 older adults were compared in the speed of their same-different judgments of two perifoveal stimuli. The two stimuli were either identical or varied along one or more of the dimensions of size, shape, and color. In both age groups, RT for correct "different" judgments increased with stimulus similarity, an effect which was more pronounced in the elderly subjects. Results suggest that age differences in free search are due, in part, to an age-related decline in the speed of evaluating object congruence.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1986

Clinical judgment and the rationality of the human sciences.

Rationality in medicine is frequently construed as hypothetico-deductive. This article argues that such a model gives a distorted view of the rational character of an enterprise that makes judgments about individual human well-being. Medicine as a science is a practical human science. Seen as such, its rational orientation is one that applies general knowledge to particular situations. It is argued that such an orientation is not deductive but interpretative. The Aristotelian concept of practical wisdom ('phronesis') is used as a model of the rational orientation of clinical judgment.

Clinical Competence↗
PubMed1988

Improved imaging diagnosis by sequentially combined confidence judgments.

Consultation among radiologists improves diagnostic efficacy. However, it is unclear in practice when consultation is indicated, and consultation may be logistically difficult. We present a computerized method of noninteractive consultation that supersedes these problems, using radiograph readers' confidence judgments in their decisions. Individual categorical confidence judgments of excretory urogram diagnoses were transformed into diagnostic probabilities, then combined sequentially by computer simulation with other radiologists' probabilities until sufficient group confidence was achieved. Appropriate stopping rules were defined empirically. Analysis of cost effectiveness of this model--considering the cost of sequential interpretations and a range of costs for false-positive and false-negative errors--indicates that mathematically combined sequential decisions are more efficacious and less costly than individuals interpreting urograms alone.

Decision Making, Computer-Assisted↗
PubMed1989

Reliability and validity of judgments concerning adverse events suffered by hospitalized patients.

To evaluate a process for identifying adverse events through review of medical records, multiple reviews of 360 medical records from two teaching hospital were performed. The data from these multiple reviews provided information about the validity and reliability of our two-phase review process. In particular, it was found that the initial phase, involving review of the medical records by medical-record-room administrators using explicit criteria, was valid, with a sensitivity of 84% and negative predictive value of 92%. Results also showed that the second phase, involving judgments by physicians guided by an adverse event analysis form, was reliable (Spearman Brown Rm = 0.78, m = 2) and demonstrated construct validity when compared with a review by a set of senior physicians employing a different method of review (Kappa = 0.57). In addition, it was found that these cases classified as difficult to judge from causation were judged less reliable (Rm = 0.48, for difficult case, Rm = 0.65, for other cases, m = 1). These results indicate that a two-step review process of medical records can produce judgments about adverse events that are both reliable and valid.

Boston↗
PubMed2003

Partition priming in judgment under uncertainty.

We show that likelihood judgments are biased toward an ignorance-prior probability that assigns equal credence to each mutually exclusive event considered by the judge. The value of the ignorance prior depends crucially on how the set of possibilities (i.e., the state space) is subjectively partitioned by the judge. For instance, asking "what is the probability that Sunday will be hotter than any other day next week?" facilitates a two-fold case partition, [Sunday hotter, Sunday not hotter], thus priming an ignorance prior of 1/2. In contrast, asking "what is the probability that the hottest day of the week will be Sunday?" facilitates a seven-fold class partition, [Sunday hottest, Monday hottest, etc.], priming an ignorance prior of 1/7. In four studies, we observed systematic partition dependence: Judgments made by participants presented with either case or class formulations of the same query were biased toward the corresponding ignorance prior.

Bias↗
PubMed2003

Asymmetry in judgments of moral blame and praise: the role of perceived metadesires.

An important consideration in judging the blameworthiness (or praiseworthiness) of an action is whether the agent had sufficient control over it. In three experiments, we investigated judgments of moral blame and praise elicited when individuals were presented with vignettes describing actions that were performed either carefully and deliberately or impulsively and uncontrollably. Experiment 1 uncovered an asymmetry between judgments of positive versus negative actions--negative impulsive actions elicited a discounting of moral blame, but positive impulsive actions did not elicit a discounting of moral praise. Experiments 2 and 3 showed that this asymmetry arises because individuals judge agents on the basis of their metadesires (the degree to which the agents embrace or reject the impulses leading to their actions). Individuals assume that an agent would embrace an uncontrollable positive impulse, and reject an uncontrollable negative impulse.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

The effect of social context on psychiatrists' judgments of adolescent antisocial behavior.

BACKGROUND: The DSM assumes that mental disorders can be identified by the presence of specific co-occurring symptoms associated with certain duration and impaired functioning, independent of the social context in which symptoms occur. The validity of this assumption was tested using the judgments of experienced psychiatrists. We hypothesized that psychiatrists would judge an identical set of adolescent antisocial behaviors, meeting the DSM-IV diagnostic criteria for conduct disorder, as indicative of mental disorder or non-disordered problem-in-living, depending on the social context. METHOD: A representative sample of 483 psychiatrists in the United States read one of three experimentally manipulated vignettes depicting adolescent antisocial behavior and responded to questions concerning its nature, prognosis, cause, and response to various treatments. RESULTS: Results supported our hypothesis. Under some circumstances, a youth may exhibit behaviors that meet the DSM-IV diagnostic criteria for conduct disorder, but be judged by psychiatrists as not having a mental disorder. In addition, as predicted, psychiatrists reached different judgments about course, etiology, and treatment responsiveness when the identical behaviors occurred in different social contexts. CONCLUSIONS: The findings illuminate weaknesses in the validity of classification systems based on behavioral criteria independent of their social context. Implications of findings are discussed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

An empirical test of the relative validity of expert and lay judgments of risk.

This article investigates how accurately experts (underwriters) and lay persons (university students) judge the risks posed by life-threatening events Only one prior study (Slovic, Fischhoff, & Lichtenstein, 1985) has previously investigated the veracity of expert versus lay judgments of the magnitude of risk. In that study, a heterogeneous grouping of 15 experts was found to judge, using marginal estimations, a variety of risks as closer to the true annual frequencies of death than convenience samples of the lay population. In this study, we use a larger, homogenous sample of experts performing an ecologically valid task. We also ask our respondents to assess frequencies and relative frequencies directly, rather than ask for a "risk" estimate--a response mode subject to possible qualitative attributions-as was done in the Slovic et al. study. Although we find that the experts outperformed lay persons on a number of measures, the differences are small, and both groups showed similar global biases in terms of: (1) overestimating the likelihood of dying from a condition (marginal probability) and of dying from a condition given that it happens to you (conditional probability), and (2) underestimating the ratios of marginal and conditional likelihoods between pairs of potentially lethal events. In spite of these scaling problems, both groups showed quite good performance in ordering the lethal events in terms of marginal and conditional likelihoods. We discuss the nature of expertise using a framework developed by Bolger and Wright (1994), and consider whether the commonsense assumption of the superiority of expert risk assessors in making magnitude judgments of risk is, in fact, sensible.

Expert Testimony↗
PubMed2005

An fMRI study of causal judgments.

The capacity to evaluate causal relations is fundamental to human cognition, and yet little is known of its neurocognitive underpinnings. A functional magnetic resonance imaging study was performed to investigate an hypothesized dissociation between the use of semantic knowledge to evaluate specifically causal relations in contrast to general associative relations. Identical pairs of words were judged for causal or associative relations in different blocks of trials. Causal judgments, beyond associative judgments, generated distinct activation in left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and right pre-cuneus. These findings indicate that the evaluation of causal relations in semantic memory involves additional neural mechanisms relative to those required to evaluate associative relations.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Effects of context on judgments concerning the reality status of novel entities.

Three studies examined the effects of context on decisions about the reality status of novel entities. In Experiment 1 (144, 3- to 5-year-olds), participants less often claimed that novel entities were real when they were introduced in a fantastical than in a scientific context. Experiment 2 (61, 4- to 5-year-olds) revealed that defining novel entities with reference to scientific entities had a stronger effect on reality status judgments than did hearing scientifically oriented stories before encountering the novel entities. The results from Experiment 3 (192, 3- to 6-year-olds) indicated that definitions that support inferences facilitate reality status judgments more than do definitions that simply associate novel and familiar entities. These findings demonstrate that children share with adults an important means of assessing reality status.

Child Behavior↗
PubMed2005

Hypnotic disgust makes moral judgments more severe.

Highly hypnotizable participants were given a posthypnotic suggestion to feel a flash of disgust whenever they read an arbitrary word. They were then asked to rate moral transgressions described in vignettes that either did or did not include the disgust-inducing word. Two studies show that moral judgments can be made more severe by the presence of a flash of disgust. These findings suggest that moral judgments may be grounded in affectively laden moral intuitions.

Emotions↗
PubMed1994

Calibration of sensory and cognitive judgments: a single model for both.

In a recent issue of this journal, Winman and Juslin (34, 135-148, 1993) present a model of the calibration of subjective probability judgments for sensory discrimination tasks. They claim that the model predicts a pervasive underconfidence bias observed in such tasks, and present evidence from a training experiment that they interpret as supporting the notion that different models are needed to describe judgment of confidence in sensory and in cognitive tasks. The model is actually part of the more comprehensive decision variable partition model of subjective probability calibration that was originally proposed in Ferrell and McGoey (Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 26, 32-53, 1980). The characteristics of the model are described and it is demonstrated that the model does not predict underconfidence, that it is fully compatible with the overconfidence frequently found in calibration studies with cognitive tasks, and that it well represents experimental results from such studies. It is concluded that only a single model is needed for both types of task.

Cognition↗
PubMed2006

The effect of congenital deafness on duration judgment.

OBJECTIVE: Congenital deafness provides the opportunity to study how atypical sensory and language experiences affect different aspects of information processing, e.g., time perception. METHODS: Using two methods of temporal estimation, reproduction (Exp. 1) and production (Exp. 2), the effect of deafness on duration judgment was investigated within a time domain of a few seconds. We examined 16 congenitally deaf adolescents, aged between 16 and 19 years, and 16 normally hearing subjects, matched for gender and age. In Exp. 1 subjects were asked to reproduce durations from 1 to 5.5 s, whereas in Exp. 2 they produced durations from 1 to 6 s. RESULTS: The results showed that in both experiments, the region of accurate estimation was significantly limited in deaf individuals, compared to normal hearing ones. Deaf adolescents judged accurately only intervals around 3 s, whereas they overestimated standards shorter than 2 s and underestimated those above 3 s. In contrast, controls correctly estimated the majority of standards applied in both experiments, with the exception of underreproduction of intervals longer than 3 s (Exp. 1). CONCLUSIONS: The effect of deafness on the accuracy of duration judgment can be linked to differences in the use of conventional time units, applied strategy as well as cognitive processes such as attention or working memory.

Adolescent↗