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SARS coronavirus injected intratracheally into chickens, turkeys, geese, ducks, and quail, or into the allantoic sac of their embryonating eggs, failed to cause disease or replicate. This finding suggests that domestic poultry were unlikely to have been the reservoir, or associated with dissemination, of SARS coronavirus in the animal markets of southern China.
Average circulating hemoglobin levels +/- standard deviations of male turkeys were 11.6 +/- 1.5 g, 8.8 +/- 1.6 g, and 10.4 +/- .8g/dl at 1,5, and 14 days of age, respectively. Hemoglobin levels remained relatively stable from 14 to 28 days of age. Although the changes in hemoglobin levels during the first 14 days after hatch were not statistically significant, the data are consistent with observations made by other researchers with chicks, geese, and quail.
Clostridium perfringens is the causative agent of necrotic enteritis, a commonly diagnosed disease in chickens that is also observed in turkeys and geese. Two trials were conducted to determine the in vitro effect of filter-sterilized, water-soluble wheat extracts on the growth of C. perfringens. The extracts were either nonautoclaved or autoclaved at 121 C for 40 min and were used to reconstitute thioglycolate broth media. Results of this study suggest that growth of C. perfringens is suppressed in vitro by inclusion of either extract. Glycosyl composition analysis revealed no significant differences in arabinose, xylose, or mannose content between the nonautoclaved and autoclaved extracts. Galactose, glucose, and total glycosyl content were significantly higher in the nonautoclaved extract.
Bifidobacteria were isolated from 122 of 145 samples of animal feces (from cattle, swine, sheep, goats, horses, rabbits, chickens, geese, and pigeons) from farms in France and Austria and from 92 of 955 production and processing chain samples of beef and pork (obtained at slaughter, cutting, and retail). Bacterial strains were identified to species by phenotypic numerical classification based on API 50CH and ID 32A tests and DNA-DNA hybridization. Bifidobacterium pseudolongum was present in 81% (99 of 122 samples) of all Bifidobacterium-positive fecal samples and predominated in samples from all animal species except those from swine from Austria. In these Austrian swine samples, the majority of strains were identified as Bifidobacterium thermophilum (78%), followed by B. pseudolongum (48%). The distribution of B. thermophilum and B. pseudolongum differed significantly between Austrian swine and cattle samples such as those collected along beef and pork production and processing chains. Bifidobacterium animalis was isolated from swine feces, and Bifidobacterium ruminantium was isolated from cow dung. Six fecal isolates (from cattle, swine, rabbits, goats, and horses) were identified as belonging to Bifidobacterium species of predominantly human origin: B. adolescentis, B. bifidum, and B. catenulatum. Only one other species, Bifidobacterium choerinum, was detected with low frequency in a pork processing chain. B. pseudolongum subsp. pseudolongum was predominant in pig feces, whereas B. pseudolongum subsp. globosum was predominant in feces from other animal species. Four strains closely related to both subspecies (58 to 61% DNA reassociation) formed a distinct genomic group. PCR techniques, which are more rapid and sensitive than culture-based methods, could be used to detect directly B. pseudolongum and B. thermophilum as indicators of fecal contamination along the meat processing chain.
An epornitic of avian cholera involving approximately 150 birds is described from a flock of common crows, Corvus brachyrhynchos, on a single playa lake utilized as a roost in Castro County, Texas, during early spring of 1980. There was a concomitant epornitic of avian cholera involving several hundred ducks and geese of several species on adjacent lakes in he same area. Crows scavenged extensively on waterfowl carcasses. Gross and histopathologic lesions in waterfowl were typical of acute avian cholera. Crows had a more chronic form of the disease, especially neurological involvement with the most common lesion consisting of a hemorrhagic meningitis. Other endemic species from which Pasteurella multocida was isolated included the short-eared owl, Asio flammeus, and cottontail rabbit, Silvilagus sp. The role of crows in the dissemination and maintenance of avian cholera is discussed.
Vertebrate host specificity, experimental laboratory vectors, and a description of Plasmodium (Novyella) kempi sp. n. from eastern wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris Vieillot) in Iowa are presented. Plasmodium kempi is infective for domestic turkeys, bobwhites (Colinus virginianus), chukars (Alectoris graeca), guinea fowl (Numida meleagris), peacocks (Pavo cristatus), and canaries (Serinus canaria), produces a transient infection in mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) and domestic geese (Anser anser), but will not infect ring-necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus), pigeons (Columba livia), Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix), leghorn white chickens (Gallus gallus), or starlings (Sturnus vulgaris). Oocysts and (or) sporozoites were recovered from 68% (84/124) and 98% (60/61) of the Culex pipiens pipiens and C. tarsalis examined, respectively. Oocysts developed faster and sporozoites invaded the salivary glands sooner in C. tarsalis (6 days) than in C. p. pipiens (7 days). Culex tarsalis transmitted P. kempi more effectively than C. p. pipiens, although both species were capable of transmitting the parasite by natural feeding. Oocysts developed and sporozoites also were produced in C. restuans, but its ability to transmit the parasite was not determined. Aedes aegypti (Rockefeller strain) and A. triseriatus were refractive to P. kempi. Plasmodium kempi produces trophozoites with large refractile globules and fine cytoplasmic extensions, mature schizonts in the form of a condensed fan containing four to eight nuclei (usually 5), and elongate gametocytes with irregular borders. All stages are confined almost exclusively to mature erythrocytes, with no effect on host cell size or position of host cell nucleus. Plasmodium kempi is most similar morphologically to P. (Novyella) hexamerium and P. (Novyella) vaughani. It differs from P. hexamerium in having large refractile globules in trophozoites and immature schizonts, an inability to infect starlings, an absence of phanerozoites in capillary endothelium of the brain, and the ability to develop in C. pipiens mosquitoes. Plasmodium kempi is more like P. vaughani morphologically, but differs by infecting turkeys and ducks (transient), by its inability to infect starlings, its lack of morphological variation even when in different hosts, and its ability to develop in C. pipiens and C. tarsalis.
Duck viral enteritis (DVE) was diagnosed in an outbreak of the disease in a resident population of Muscovy ducks (Cairina moschata domesticus) on a privately owned multispecies game bird production facility in Illinois, where it claimed 625 ducks. This disease condition had not been reported previously in domestic ducks in Illinois. Although other varieties and age groups of domestic waterfowl (i.e., black ducks, rhumen ducks, Pekin ducks, ducklings, and geese) were present on the game bird farm, the morbidity and mortality (100%) in this epornitic was solely limited to adult ducks of the Muscovy lineage. The clinical signs in the affected ducks were lethargy, diarrhea, dehydration, and death within 2-3 hr of onset of symptoms. Gross pathologic changes were nonspecific and included ecchymotic hemorrhage, effusion of fluid and blood within body cavities reflective of an acute systemic infectious disease. Light microscopic findings were necrosis of primarily digestive lining epithelium and variable lymphohistiocytic infiltration within mucosal and serosal connective tissues. Intranuclear inclusions resembling characteristic herpetic (i.e., Cowdry type A) inclusions were observed primarily in the digestive, respiratory, and reproductive tracts; liver; and spleen. Esophageal candidiasis, bacteriosis, and systemic Pasteurella anatipestifer infections, thought to be concurrent or opportunistic infections, were present in several ducks. DVE virus was demonstrated in infected Muscovy duck embryo fibroblast cells by direct DVE virus-specific fluorescent antibody staining.
Reported are results of serologic examinations for the presence of anti-Toxoplasma antibodies by direct agglutination in 1,497 people: 1,327 forestry workers and 86 farmers occupationally exposed to T. gondii from the Lublin region (eastern Poland) and 84 inhabitants of the city of Lublin examined as the control group, including 50 blood donors and 34 workers from forestry headquarters. 58.5% positive results in forestry workers, 56.9% in farmers and 46.4% in the control group were obtained. The highest percentages of positive results were obtained in Sosnowica, Wlodawa and Sobibor, all localities in the Chelm district. This finding and the prevalence of clinical cases may suggest that the Chelm district (easternmost area of the Lublin region, bordering Ukraine) is an endemic area of toxoplasmosis. A case of toxoplasmosis in a 39 year old farmer is described in whom reinfection was identified 20 years after primary diagnosis. Rapid increase in specific serologic titres and symptoms typical for toxoplasmosis were noted. The rest of the family and household animals were also found to be positive which supports the suggestion of a family-environmental case of toxoplasmosis. Survey for anti-Toxoplasma antibodies in various domestic and wild animals comprised sera from 262 cows, 120 pigs, 34 geese, 65 chickens, 3 roe deer and 10 sheep from the Lublin region. High percentages of positive results were found in cattle (53.8%) and in pigs (15%). Fowl were positive only in 0-5.9%. The cattle and pigs from the Chelm district are most probably the main sources of toxoplasmosis threatening humans in this area.
Between the period of August 1973 and May 1974, 553 roasting chickens, soup chickens, ducks, and geese from seven different countries were examined for the presence of Salmonella. In 284 (= 51,4%) specimens 23 various Salmonella serotypes were discovered. Out of 475 Salmonella isolates 244 (= 51,4%) were resistant to streptomycin, the sulfonamide complex or their combination whereas 195 (= 41,0%) were sensitive to all eight tested antibiotics. Of greater importance for nutritive and therapeutic application of antibiotics is, however, the resistance of 36 (= 7,6%) Salmonella strains to tetracyclines, ampicillin and kanamycin, 28 (= 5,9%) of the salmonellae showing resistance exclusively to tetracyclines. The water tested from 10 thawed specimens 2 of which contained diphosphates, produced dubious results with the general inhibitor test. Regarding the bacterial yield, both the selenite and tetrathionate enrichments were of equal value. Nevertheless with each individual enrichment the isolated partial amount of the entire collection of positive samples was not identical so that the highest yield of Salmonella was obtained from a combination of both methods. Incubation of the selenite enrichment at a maximum of 43 degrees C definitely produced a higher percentage than at 37 degrees C. A selenite enrichment proved to be superior to that of tetrathionate for the isolation of Salmonella serotypes which rarely occur in fowl. The excellent selectivity of the Brilliant-green Phenol-red Lactose Sucrose Agar, as repeatedly described in the literature, is also confirmed by these tests.
Ruminants and pigs are the dominant natural hosts of food-and-mouth disease (FMD) viruses. Approximately 70 additional mammalian species are found to be susceptible under natural or experimental conditions. Reptilia, amphibia, and fish are probably naturally resistant to infection. According to the reviewed literature, domestic birds (chickens, turkeys, guinea fowl, ducks and geese) have been experimentally infected with some strains of FMD viruses and may develop lesions suggestive of FMD such as vesicular lesions on the comb, wattles, eye lids, and feet. Since chickens are to some extent coprophagous, chickens get infected by ingestion of virus under conditions of natural exposure or their plumage gets contaminated in an infectious environment. Thus, domestic birds kept in free-run systems may serve as virus vectors for short distances. Free-living birds, especially starlings (Sturnus vulgaris), sea gulls (Larus canus), house-sparrows (Passer domesticus) have been successfully experimentally infected and developed vesicular lesions on the skin and mucosal membranes of the mouth. During epizootics of FMD the plumage of these free-living birds can be contaminated with FMD viruses and the virus is spread over long distances during migration periods in spring and autumn. Thus migrating birds may assume an active role in long distance dissemination of FMD viruses.
The authors report on the results of several years' research into the role of domestic and wild birds in the epidemiology and epizootiology of Q fever in Czechoslovakia. They examined 572 blood specimens taken from domestic birds in an area of endemic Q fever and found positive reactions to the complement-fixation test in hens, turkeys, ducks, geese, and pigeons, with hens showing the highest percentage of positive reactions. In addition, the susceptibility of hens to infection with Rickettsia burnetii was demonstrated experimentally, and excretion of R. burnetii in the stools of hens was demonstrated from the 7th to the 40th day after infection.Complement-fixation tests were also done on 480 blood specimens from wild birds with positive serological reactions in 15.8% of birds living directly on infected farms, 4.3% of birds living in the immediate vicinity of those farms, and 1.8% of birds living independently of human habitations but in an endemic area. R. burnetii was isolated from the spleen and liver of the redstart and the white wagtail and from ectoparasites of swallows.
All of the known subtypes of influenza A viruses are circulating in ducks, providing the reservoir for the emergence of influenza viruses in all other species including humans. Each of the pandemic influenza virus strains that emerged in 20th century is a reassortant generated in pig co-infected with avian viruses and the preceding human strains. None of the 15 HA and 9 NA subtypes can be ruled out as potential candidates for future pandemics since avian viruses of any subtype can contribute genes in the generation of reassortants in pigs. To expand surveillance for influenza viruses in migratory and domestic ducks and geese, chickens, quail, and pigs of the world and to be informed about what influenza viruses are dominant in the animal reservoirs, we have started 'Program of Excellence for the Control of Influenza'. One of the aims of the program is to establish a library of influenza virus strains and their genes, where influenza virus strains isolated from animal species in the surveillance are thoroughly characterized, stored, and provided for the use of diagnosis and vaccine preparation for the control of future pandemics.
Ceratophyllus vagabundus insularis was recorded in all typical nesting cliffs in mainland Norway in nests of puffins, shags, cormorants, and kittiwakes, but not in nests of gulls. Ceratophyllus vagabundus vagabundus was recorded in Spitzbergen associated with geese and gulls. Ceratophyllus garei, the only flea species in Larus gull's nests, was present in small numbers in nests of kittiwakes and shags in the southern part of the investigation area. Mioctenopsylla arctica arctica was recorded in kittiwake nests on Spitzbergen and in one nesting cliff in the most arctic part of mainland Norway, where it also was the dominating species. C. vagabundus was reported to attack man.
The scientific literature of the past century is reviewed on fowl plague (presently termed highly pathogenic avian influenza, HPAI) in pigeons. HPAI viruses cause epidemic disease outbreaks with high rates of losses in many avian species, particularily in chickens and turkeys. Also susceptible to disease are quails, guinea fowl, ducks, geese, ostriches, passerine birds, and birds of prey whereas conflicting reports on the susceptibility of the domestic pigeon exist. Based on literature reports and on own experiments, and applying as criteria for judgements clinically overt forms of disease, virus multiplication plus shedding and seroconversion, it is concluded that domestic pigeons are only partially susceptible to influenza A viruses of the haemagglutinin subtype H7. Infection of pigeons with H7 viruses results only in some of them in signs, virus shedding and seroconversion. Using the same criteria, pigeons appear to be even less susceptible to infection with influenza A viruses of the H5 subtype. Only one of five publications describe in 1/19 pigeons exposed to H5 influenza A virus depression one day before death, and only 2/19 multiplied and excreted virus, and 1/19 developed circulating antibodies. Consequently, pigeons play only a minor role in the epidemiology of H5 influenza viruses. In contrast, following infection with influenza A virus of the subtype H7 clinical signs in pigeons consist of conjunctivitis, tremor, paresis of wings and legs, and wet droppings. H7-infected pigeons multiply and excrete H7 viruses and develop circulating antibodies. Albeit of the status of infection, free-flying domestic pigeons can act as mechanical vectors and vehicles for long-distance transmission of any influenza A virus if plumage or feet were contaminated.
Avian influenza is a contagious disease of birds widely spread in wild fowl (namely ducks) and most feared in domestic birds, which may be infected with the highly pathogenic strains of the virus (HPAI). Some mammals, including human beings, may also be affected and die. Specific tools for the diagnosis of HPAI were not available before 1955, but since then more than 25 outbreaks were reported throughout the world, with an unusual incidence in Asia and Europe after 2003. However, before 1955 and since the Antiquity, numerous important outbreaks have been reported in Europe in domestic or wild birds, with high morbidity and mortality rates. Such outbreaks involved either poultry (including domestic geese or ducks) or wild birds (water fowl or land fowl). As far as the latter were concerned, some authors of the Middle-Ages attributed the large-scale deaths of birds to pitched battles between different avian species. Many details are given on the places and dates of these outbreaks, as well as on their epidemiological features. The author recalls the need for strengthening the surveillance and control of HPAI to minimize any risk of pandemic following a genetic re-assortment of avian and human influenza viruses.
A total of 90 woodpigeons shot in August and September 2002 in an area west of Szczecin were obtained from hunters. Based on their age and sex, the birds were divided into the following 4 groups: young males, young females, adult males, and adult females. Content of dry matter, ash, calcium, and fluorine were determined in the tarsometatarsus of each bird. No inter-group differences in per cent dry weight and ash contents were found. There was no correlation between fluorine and calcium contents with either dry weight or ash of the bones. However, significant differences in fluorine and calcium contents of bone ash were revealed between young and adult birds, regardless of sex, the two elements being more abundant in adult birds. Moreover, adult females differed from adult males, demonstrating higher fluorine content per bone dry weight. Adult birds regardless of sex showed higher fluorine content than young birds. A significant fluorine vs. calcium correlation was found in adult birds only. Correlation between per cent calcium and ash contents in bone dry weight was highly significant (r = 0.95; p < 0.0001). The present study corroborates observations of other authors regarding age-related increase in the fluorine content in birds and a general lack of a clearcut relationship between the bone fluorine content and sex outside of breeding season. As shown by this study and the available literature, bones of herbivorous birds, including pigeons and geese are more representative for assessment of environmental fluorine pollution than bones of birds feeding on a mixed diet, carnivores, and scavengers. In view of the large variability in birds, comparisons should be made by studying analogous bones.
With help of Guizotia creatinine agar (syn. bird seed agar) Cryptococcus (Cr.) neoformans var. neoformans was isolated from 71 (7.7%) of 925 investigated droppings of birds kept within human living area. Cr. neoformans was detected in droppings of 1.2% from 164 psittacines, in droppings of 1.7% from 118 budgerigars and in droppings of 18.4% from (carrier) pigeons. This yeast was not isolated from droppings of 13 small parrots, 10 eclectus parrots, 13 rosellas, 21 cockatiels, 6 Polytelidus sp., 32 Cacatua sp., 13 Carduelis sp., 5 waxbills, 5 starlings, 120 chicken, 9 turkeys, 2 geese, 2 Turdus sp., 1 duck and 1 gull.
An epornitic of duck viral enteritis occurred at the National Zoological Park in the spring of 1975. The disease affected 8 different species of ducks; geese and swan were spared. Diagnosis was based on characteristic pathologic changes, with herpetic inclusion bodies in the epithelium of the digestive tract and liver, and by viral isolation from 4 ducks. An experimental attenuated live-virus vaccine and sanitizing procedures were used to control the epornitic.