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PubMed2004

The metabolic syndrome in obese postmenopausal women: relationship to body composition, visceral fat, and inflammation.

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether aerobic fitness, body composition, body fat distribution, and inflammation are different in obese postmenopausal women with and without the metabolic syndrome (MS), and whether the severity of MS is associated with these characteristics. Fifty-eight women (age, 59 +/- 1 yr; body mass index, 33.0 +/- 0.6 kg/m2)completed testing of maximal aerobic capacity, body composition (fat mass, lean mass, and percent body fat), body fat distribution (sc and visceral fat areas, and regional adipocyte sizes), and inflammation (C-reactive protein, IL-6, and TNF-alpha,and their soluble receptors). Lean mass (44.4 +/- 0.9 vs. 41.2 +/- 0.9 kg; P < 0.05), visceral fat area (180 +/- 10 vs. 135 +/- 7 cm2; P <0.001), and plasma soluble TNF receptor 1 (sTNFR1; 860 +/- 25 vs. 765 +/- 42 pg/ml; P < 0.05) were higher in women with the MS(n = 27) than in those without the MS (n = 31). The number of MS components was directly related to weight, body mass index, fat mass, lean mass, visceral fat area, and plasma sT-NFR1. We conclude that obese older women with the MS are characterized by high lean mass, high visceral fat, and elevated sTNFR1, and the severity of the MS is associated with body composition, visceral adiposity, and inflammation.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1994

Coronary atherosclerosis in relation to body fatness and its distribution.

In a cross-sectional study of 226 patients (160 men and 66 women) who underwent coronary angiography, the relationships between total body fatness and abdominal fat distribution, and angiographically assessed coronary artery disease (CAD) were examined. Two different scoring systems were used to quantify the degree of CAD: an 'extent score' and a 'myocardial score'. The extent score provides an estimate of the extent of coronary atherosclerosis and the myocardial score provides an assessment of the amount of myocardium threatened by coronary lesions. Total body fatness was estimated using the body mass index (BMI) and the waist-to-hip circumference ratio (WHR) was used to assess abdominal fat distribution. The weight and height were obtained by questionnaire at the time of angiography, and self-reported waist and hip circumference measurements were used to calculate WHR. The BMI and WHR were associated with several coronary heart disease (CHD) risk factors. However, BMI was not significantly associated with either of the CAD scores. The WHR was positively associated with both the extent score (rs = 0.18; P < 0.05) and the myocardial score (rs = 0.17; P < 0.05) for men and women together, and positively associated with the myocardial score for women aged 40 to 70 years (rs = 0.32; P < 0.05). The associations between WHR and the CAD scores were not significant after adjusting for several risk factors for CHD. These results indicate that other risk factors for CHD may be involved in the associations between WHR and CAD.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1993

Genetic and nongenetic determinants of regional fat distribution.

The role of inherited and nongenetic factors in individual differences observed in the level of sc fat on the trunk and abdominal areas and in the abdominal visceral deposit is reviewed. First, the metabolic and clinical implications of variation in body fat topography are summarized. Second, the results of genetic epidemiology studies on the heritability and other evidence for a role of the genotype in the amount of truncal-abdominal sc fat and abdominal visceral fat are reviewed. Third, the impact of total body fat, age, and gender on regional fat distribution is highlighted. Fourth, adipose tissue lipoprotein lipase activity is considered as a determinant of fat topography, with a discussion of site and gender differences, the effects of steroid hormones, and evidence from genetic epidemiology. Fifth, the contribution of adipose tissue lipolysis is reviewed with an emphasis on the various regulatory factors of the lipolytic pathways including catecholamines, insulin, adenosine, steroids, and other modulators. The role of lipolytic characteristics on fat topography is further assessed by considering changes with age, differences between men and women, effects of excess body fat, and data from heritability studies. Although the study of regional variation of in vitro adipose tissue metabolism has provided valuable information, a better understanding of variation in fat topography and of the role played by adipose tissue in the regulation of whole body carbohydrate and lipid metabolism will likely require extensive in situ and in vivo investigations. Sixth, as enlargement of a specific fat deposit is associated with increases in fat cell size and number, these topics are considered with an emphasis on the role of adipose cell differentiation. Seventh, the importance of blood levels of sex steroids and glucocorticoids for regional fat distribution is discussed. Then, a unifying hypothesis, defined as the hypothalamic arousal and neuroendocrine dysregulation model, is briefly described. Finally, the issue of whether body fat distribution can be altered by caloric restriction or regular exercise is addressed.

Abdomen↗
PubMed1990

Influence of physical activity on insulin-like growth factor-I in healthy younger and older men.

To examine the hypothesis that a lower level of physical activity influences the age-related decline in insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I), we measured serum concentrations in healthy nonobese younger and older men, characterized for maximal aerobic capacity (VO2 max) and energy expended in leisure time physical activity. To examine the independent influence of physical activity on IGF-I relative to other lifestyle variables, we also determined fat-free weight, percent body fat, body fat distribution (waist to hip and waist to thigh ratios), and habitual caloric intake in our population. IGF-I was 33% lower (P less than 0.01) in older men than in younger men, inversely related to percent body fat (r = -0.55) and indices of upper body fat distribution (waist to hip ratio, r = -0.45; waist to thigh ratio, r = -0.47), and positively related to VO2 max (r = 0.64) and leisure time physical activity (r = 0.45; P less than 0.01). IGF-I was not related to fat-free weight or daily caloric intake. After controlling for the effects of age by multiple regression analysis, VO2 max (r = 0.29) and leisure time physical activity (r = 0.24) were the sole factors independently related to IGF-I (P less than 0.05). Our results suggest that multiple factors contribute to the age-related decline in IGF-I. Lower levels of IGF-I in aging men are related at least in part to diminished physical activity.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed2002

Differences in leptin production by regional fat mass in postmenopausal women.

To investigate the differences in leptin production by regional fat mass, 76 postmenopausal Japanese women were enrolled in this study. Age, height, weight, and body mass index (BMI, wt/ht2) were recorded. Serum leptin levels were measured by RIA. Trunk fat mass, total body fat mass, and percentage of body fat were measured by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DEXA). The ratio of trunk to leg fat mass (trunk-leg fat ratio), an index of body fat distribution, was also assessed by DEXA. Relationship of leptin levels with baseline characteristics and anthropometric variables were investigated by Pearson correlation test. Serum leptin levels were positively correlated with BMI (r = 0.683, p < 0.0001), total body fat mass (r = 0.680, p < 0.0001), trunk fat mass (r = 0.632, p < 0.0001), and percentage of body fat (r = 0.624, p < 0.0001). However, no significant correlation was observed between trunk-leg fat ratio and leptin levels (r = 0.181). Age and height were not correlated with leptin levels. Based on these results, we concluded that body fat distribution does not serve as a predictor of leptin levels in postmenopausal women.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1994

[Influence of body fat and its distribution on cardiovascular risk factors in healthy subjects].

The aim of this work was to study the association between obesity and body fat distribution with known cardiovascular risk factors. Seven hundred eighty two healthy individuals, 634 men and 148 female age 44 +/- 10 years were studied. Multiple stepwise regression models were performed in which cardiovascular risk factors (total, LDL and HDL cholesterol, triglycerides, fasting and postprandial blood glucose, systolic and diastolic blood pressure) were considered as the dependent variable and age, sex, smoking habits, body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (WC), waist hip ratio (WHR), subscapular/tricipital skinfold ratio (STR) and percentage of total body fat (%BF), derived from the sum of four skinfolds, as the independent variables. Among anthropometric variables, WC was the principal predictor of total cholesterol and basal blood glucose, WHR was the principal predictor of HDL cholesterol (inverse relationship) and triglycerides; BMI was the principal predictor of systolic and diastolic blood pressure; %BF was the principal predictor of post prandial blood glucose. Performing the same analysis in a subgroup of patients with a BMI between 21 and 24, measures of fat distribution continued to be predictors of cardiovascular risk factors. It is concluded that both total body fat and its distribution are related to cardiovascular risk factors and, in some cases, may have an additive effect and should be measured in preventive medical examinations.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1998

Social physique anxiety in postmenopausal women.

Social physique anxiety (SPA), the degree to which individuals become anxious when others observe their bodies, is an important concept for postmenopausal women because it may be directly related to their physical activity behavior. Women with high levels of social physique anxiety may not participate in health-enhancing physical activity. Therefore, the main purpose of this study was to examine SPA in postmenopausal women relative to leisure time physical activity (LTPA, activities such as exercise, recreation, and sports). Other factors, such as percent body fat, body fat distribution, age, and hormone replacement therapy status were also examined for their relationship to SPA. Women who expended < or = 500 kcal.wk-1 in LTPA had significantly higher SPA than women who expended > or = 2,000 kcal.wk-1, independent of percent body fat. Women with more than 37.5% body fat had significantly higher SPA than those with less than 37.5% body fat. Women with upper BFD (waist-to-hip ratio or WHR > 0.85) had higher SPA than women with lower BFD (WHR < 0.75). There were no differences in SPA relative to age or HRT status. It appears that a sedentary lifestyle, high percent body fat, and upper body fat distribution are associated with increased SPA in postmenopausal women, thus health promotion professionals should be aware of these concerns when developing physical activity interventions for postmenopausal women.

Aged↗
PubMed1992

The case for using waist to hip ratio measurements in routine medical checks.

OBJECTIVE: To provide a rationale for using waist:hip ratio (WHR) measurements in clinical practice. DATA SOURCES: The article reviews the literature on body fat distribution back to the mid 1950s. STUDY SELECTION: Studies are reviewed which show a clear association between abdominal obesity and a range of ailments including coronary events, hypertension, blood lipid levels, cholecystectomy, diabetes and gallbladder disease. DATA EXTRACTION: Key data on the correlation of body fat distribution and health risks are summarised. DATA SYNTHESIS: Abdominal fat measured by a WHR may be a better single predictor of many diseases than other risk factors such as overall obesity, hypertension, smoking, or hypercholesterolaemia. CONCLUSIONS: The association between WHR and risk indicators appears to be "dose" related, and independent of sex, race and age. High WHRs, however, are more characteristic of men with lower socioeconomic status, whereas weight control programs are more commonly developed for women. A reorientation of weight control initiatives based on health rather than aesthetic priorities is needed. Measurement of WHR should be a routine part of clinical assessments. The predictability of the measure can be improved by combining it with a measure of body mass.

Abdomen↗
PubMed2005

Conjugated linoleic acid impairs endothelial function.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the effect of dietary supplementation with conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) on body mass index (BMI), body fat distribution, endothelial function, and markers of cardiovascular risk. METHODS AND RESULTS: Forty healthy volunteers with BMI >27 kg/m2 were randomized to receive a CLA isomeric mixture or olive oil in a 12-week double-blind study. Subcutaneous body fat and abdominal/hepatic fat content were assessed using skin-fold thicknesses and computed tomography scanning, respectively. Endothelial function was assessed by brachial artery flow-mediated dilatation (FMD). Plasma isoprostanes were measured as an index of oxidative stress. CLA supplementation did not result in a significant change in BMI index or total body fat. There was a significant decrease in limb (-7.8 mm, P<0.001), but not torso skin-fold thicknesses or abdominal or liver fat content. Brachial artery FMD declined (-1.3%, P=0.013), and plasma F2-isoprostanes increased (+91 pg/mL, P=0.042). CONCLUSIONS: A CLA isomeric mixture had at most modest effects on adiposity and worsened endothelial function. On the basis of these results, the use of the isomeric mixture of CLA as an aid to weight loss cannot be recommended.

Adult↗
PubMed1990

Reduction of lipoprotein (a) by weight loss.

Lipoprotein (a) is believed to be an independent risk factor for atherosclerosis. Fat modified diets or lipid lowering drugs seem to have little effect on Lp(a) serum levels. We tested the possibility of lowering Lp(a) by weight reduction and examined the correlation between Lp(a) serum levels, other lipoproteins, body weight and body fat distribution in 53 obese patients. Weight reduction by a 4000 kJ protein enriched diet for four weeks led to a mean 19 percent reduction of Lp(a) serum levels in men (P less than 0.01) and a mean 30 percent reduction in premenopausal women (P less than 0.001). Significant correlations could neither be demonstrated between Lp(a) and other lipoproteins nor between initial Lp(a), overweight and body fat distribution. This implies that an intraindividual interdependence between Lp(a) and body weight seems to be possible although an interindividual correlation can not be shown.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed2004

Fatty acid synthase expression and clinicopathological findings in endometrial cancer.

BACKGROUND: Over-expression of fatty acid synthase (FAS), the enzyme involved in the anabolic conversion of dietary carbohydrates to fatty acid, has been reported in many human malignancies. This study investigated whether clinicopathological findings [histological grade, myometrial invasion, vessel permeation, lymphatic permeation, nodal metastasis, and Federation of International Gynecologic Obstetrics (FIGO) stage] and body fat distribution differ with the level of FAS expression in endometrial cancer. METHODS: Subjects were 73 postmenopausal women (mean age, 62.2 +/- 7.4 years; range, 49-75 years) with endometrioid adenocarcinoma. Baseline characteristics included age, height, body weight (BW), body mass index (BMI), and years since menopause (YSM). Percentage of body fat and the trunk-leg fat mass ratio were measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. FAS expression was determined using immunohistochemical methods in formalin-fixed and paraffin-embedded cancer specimens. FAS expression was defined as none, low, and high. RESULTS: Sixty-six (90.4%) cases showed positive FAS status. Sixty-nine percent of cases showed myometrial invasion > or =1/2, 50% of cases showed myometrial invasion <1/2, and 23% of cases without myometrial invasion demonstrated a positive FAS status. Lymphatic permeation, vessel permeation, nodal metastasis, and advancing FigO stage were associated with FAS status. The trunk-leg fat ratio and BMI in high and low FAS status groups were significantly greater than that in those not expressing FAS (p < 0.05). However, age, height, weight, YSM, and percentage of body fat did not differ with FAS status. CONCLUSION: FAS expression in endometrial cancer is associated with cancer progression and upper body fat distribution.

Absorptiometry, Photon↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Adolescent blood pressure, anger expression and hostility: possible links with body fat.

An uncertain relation between health and angry/hostile behaviour exists in the literature on adolescents. With data from a pilot study, one possible reason for this is explored: health measures such as blood pressure as well as angry/hostile behaviours may change with, or depend upon physical maturity, body size and body fatness. The sample consists of 60 African-, Hispanic-, and Anglo-American adolescents (15 to 16 years of age) drawn from a public school in Houston, TX. Using resting diastolic blood pressure as a model, in a sex stratified analysis, the following conclusions were reached: Physical maturity in girls and body height in boys were related to ethnicity in the sample and were confounders of the blood pressure and anger relationship. In girls secretive anger ('anger-in') and hostility were associated with increased body fat; expressive anger ('anger-out') in boys is associated with increased conicity (central body fat distribution) (p < 0.01). These associations were independent of height and physical maturity. Hostility was not significantly related to diastolic blood pressure in boys after adjusting for height and conicity. 'Anger-in' was significantly and positively related to diastolic blood pressure in girls (p < 0.01). This relationship was strongly mediated by per cent body fat, because the association of 'anger-in' and blood pressure was no longer statistically significant when the model included body fat. The results suggest that measures of physical maturity and more refined measures of body fat and body fat distribution should be considered in studies attempting to link adolescent blood pressure with anger expression.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1988

Sex differences in osteoarthritis of the knee. The role of obesity.

This study investigated the role of obesity (body mass index, total body weight, triceps skinfold, subscapular skinfold) compared with other anthropometric variables (body fat distribution, muscularity, elbow breadth, bitrochanteric breadth) in order to explain previously noted sex differences in osteoarthritis of the knee. Anthropometric measures, self-reported symptoms, and knee x-ray data were analyzed for 3,905 adults aged 45-74 years with valid x-ray data from the First National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1971-1975. Prevalence of knee osteoarthritis was 4.9% in women and 2.6% in men. The relative risk for women compared with men increased from 1.57 at 45-54 years to 2.14 at 65-74 years. Adjusting for body mass index and subscapular and triceps skinfolds reduced the sex difference, whereas adjusting for total body weight, body fat distribution, muscularity, and skeletal size increased the sex difference. Body mass index was the variable that best reduced the sex difference when the other variables were included in the analysis; it did not, however, eliminate the sex difference. No sex differences were found in the strength of the association between anthropometric variables and osteoarthritis, nor was there evidence to suggest that obesity is a consequence of knee osteoarthritis rather than a risk factor.

Adult↗
PubMed1993

Race-dependent health risks of upper body obesity.

For Caucasian women, an excess of abdominal fat is a potent risk factor for the development of diabetes and cardiovascular disease. However, there is limited information regarding the health risks of upper body obesity for African-American women despite a higher prevalence of obesity and obesity-related diseases and a reportedly higher prevalence of abdominal fat accumulation. This study aimed to determine whether UBO, independent of total body fatness, is as potent a diabetic and CVD risk factor for black women as has been confirmed for white women. Diabetes and CVD risks and androgenic status were assessed in nondiabetic, premenopausal women of similar body fatness who differed by race (black or white) and body fat distribution (UBO or lower body obesity). In black women, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol was the only measurement adversely affected by abdominal fat; HDL cholesterol was significantly lower in the black UBO group (1.14 +/- 0.05 mM) compared with the black LBO group (1.37 +/- 0.08 mM). This contrasts markedly with our findings in white women. In confirmation of previous reports, white UBO women, compared with white LBO counterparts, had significantly higher glucose (967.6 vs. 709.2 mM/2 h) and insulin (120.5 vs. 52.1 pM/2 h) areas and significantly lower peripheral insulin sensitivities (0.99 vs. 2.95 x 10(-4) min-1/microU/ml). In addition, HDL cholesterol levels were significantly lower in the white UBO group (1.03 mM) compared with the white LBO group (1.49 mM), whereas plasma TG levels (white UBO, 1.72 vs. white LBO, 0.88 mM) and dBPs (white UBO, 84 vs. white LBO, 75 mmHg) were significantly higher.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1999

Body composition by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry in black compared with white women.

Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) has recently been applied to the measurement of body composition using a three-compartment model consisting of fat, lean and bone mineral. The mass of skeletal muscle may be approximated by measurement of the lean tissue mass of the extremities. In addition, body fat distribution can be estimated by determining the ratio of fat in the trunk to the fat in the extremities. In the current study, DXA was used to compare body composition and fat distribution between black (n = 162) and white women (n = 203). Black women had a higher mineral mass and a higher skeletal muscle mass. The ratio of mineral to muscle mass was higher in black women, even when the data were adjusted for age, height and weight. Both total body bone mineral and muscle mass declined with age in both races, with evidence for an accelerated loss of bone mineral after menopause. Body size (height and weight) was generally a significant variable in developing regressions of each compartment against age. Their higher musculoskeletal mass may lead to misclassification of 12% of black women as obese if body mass index is used as an index of obesity. Body fat distribution (trunk/leg) did not differ between races in the raw data. However, for women of the same age, height and weight, white women have a significantly higher trunk/leg fat ratio. Body composition values for fat, lean and bone mineral obtained from DXA should be adjusted not only for gender but also for age, height, weight and ethnicity.

Absorptiometry, Photon↗
PubMed2004

Body fat patterning in polycystic ovary syndrome women as a predictor of the response to clomiphene.

BACKGROUND: To investigate the difference in the response to clomiphene citrate (CC) based on body fat distribution in women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). METHODS: Ninety anovulatory PCOS women were divided into two subgroups based on treatment response: women who ovulated with CC (CC responders, n = 49) and those who did not ovulate with CC (CC nonresponders, n = 41). Baseline characteristics included age, age at menarche, height, weight and body mass index [BMI; weight/(height)2]. Percentage of body fat, body fat mass and the ratio of trunk fat to leg fat mass amount (trunk-leg fat ratio) were measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA). RESULTS: Age, age at menarche and height did not differ between the two groups. However, trunk-leg fat ratio in CC responders (0.9 +/- 0.4) was significantly lower than that in CC nonresponders (1.3 +/- 0.4) (p < 0.001). Percentage of body fat, body fat mass and BMI were also lower in CC responders (p < 0.01). On multiple regression analysis, however, trunk-leg fat ratio proved to be a superior predictor of CC responder to percentage of body fat, BMI or body fat mass (standardized regression coefficient > or = 0.510; t-values > or = 3.432; p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Response to CC in anovulatory PCOS women differs with body fat distribution.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1999

Determinants of energy expenditure and fuel utilization in man: effects of body composition, age, sex, ethnicity and glucose tolerance in 916 subjects.

BACKGROUND: 24-h energy expenditure (24-EE) and 24-h respiratory quotient (24-RQ) are important measurements in obesity research, but their accurate assessment is limited to few specialized laboratories. OBJECTIVES: 1) To provide comprehensive prediction equations for 24-EE, sleeping metabolic rate (SMR) and 24-RQ, based on a large number of Caucasian and Pima Indian subjects, covering a wide range of body weight and composition, body fat distribution, and age and 2) to test whether Pima Indians have lower metabolic rate and/or higher 24-RQ than Caucasians. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: 916 non-diabetic subjects, aged 31.5 +/- 11.9 y, body weight 90.5 +/- 26.1 kg (mean +/- s.d.), (561 males, 355 females; 416 Caucasians, 500 Pima Indians; 720 with normal (NGT) and 196 with impaired (IGT) glucose tolerance) spent 24 h in a respiratory chamber for measurements of 24-EE, SMR and 24-RQ. Fat-free mass (FFM) and fat mass (FM) were assessed by either hydrodensitometry or DEXA. Waist circumference and waist-to-thigh ratio (WTR) were determined as measures of body fat distribution. RESULTS: In a stepwise multiple regression analysis, FFM, FM, sex, age, WTR, and ethnicity were significant independent determinants of 24-EE (2258 +/- 422 kcal/d), explaining 85% of its variability (24-EE (kcal/d)=696 + 18.9 FFM (kg) + 10.O FM (kg) + 180 male -1.9 age (y) + 7.1 WTR (per decimal) + 44 Pima Indian). SMR (1623 +/- 315kcal/d) was determined (78% of variability) by FFM, FM, sex, age, WTR, and glucose tolerance (SMR (kcal/d) = 443 +/- 14.6 FFM (kg) + 6.9 FM (kg) + 79 male - 1.0 age (y) + 5.8 WTR (per decimal) + 38 IGT), but not by ethnicity. Adjustment for the respective variables reduced the variance in 24-EE from 422 to 162 kcal/d and in SMR from 315 to 146kcal/d. 24-RQ (0.854 +/- 0.026) was determined by waist circumference and energy balance (24-RQ = 0.88429-0.00175 waist circumference (cm) + 0.00004 energy balance (%)), but not by sex, ethnicity or glucose tolerance. With this equation only 13% of the variability in 24-RQ could be explained (residual variance 0.024). Compared to Caucasians, Pima Indians had higher 24-EE, but similar SMR and 24-RQ. CONCLUSIONS: This analysis provides comprehensive prediction equations for 24-EE, SMR and 24-RQ from their major known determinants. It confirms the previous findings that, even after adjustment for body composition, age, sex, ethnicity, and glucose tolerance, there is still considerable variability in energy expenditure and substrate oxidation that may, in part, be genetically determined. In adult Pima Indians, we found no evidence for lower metabolic rate or impaired fat oxidation that could explain the propensity towards obesity in this ethnic group.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1996

Body size and breast cancer risk among women under age 45 years.

In a multicenter population-based case-control study that included 1,588 cases and 1,394 controls less than age 45 years, the authors examined the relation of adult body size and breast cancer risk among young women. Breast cancer patients and healthy controls were identified in Atlanta, Georgia; Seattle/Puget Sound, Washington; and central New Jersey. Cases were newly diagnosed with in situ or invasive breast cancer during the period of May 1, 1990, through December 31, 1992. Anthropometric variables thought to reflect early environmental factors (e.g., height, sitting height, frame size), obesity, and body fat distribution were measured directly. Height, but not sitting height or frame size, was a breast cancer risk factor. Risk of the disease was increased 46 percent among women in the fourth quartile of height (> 167 cm) compared with women in the first quartile (< 159 cm). Body weight, but not body fat distribution, was related to breast cancer risk. Risk of the disease was 35 percent lower among women in the highest quartile of Quetelet index (> 28.8 kg/m2) compared with women in the lowest quartile (< 22.0 kg/m2). Risk of the disease was increased about 2.1-fold (95 percent confidence interval 1.2-3.8) among women who were thin and tall compared with women who were heavy and short. Thus, breast cancer risk was increased substantially among younger women with a linear body type.

Adult↗