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PubMed1996

Appetitive sexual behavior in male rats: 1. The role of olfaction in level-changing behavior.

Level-changing behavior is a form of anticipatory behavior of a male rat, when tested in a bilevel testbox. The male explores the testcage prior to introduction of a female. The female is introduced after 5 min. The number of level changes displayed by the male in this period reflects appetitive aspects of sexual behavior and it was suggested that analysis of this level-changing behavior may function as assessment of sexual motivation. In this study the increase of anticipatory level changes over repeated weekly tests was dependent upon (sexual) olfactory stimulation. The number of anticipatory level changes was reliably reduced by administration of the opioid antagonist naloxone, suggesting that endogenous opioids facilitate this behavior. These results suggest that the increase of anticipatory level changes over repeated tests is a response to olfactory stimuli and reflects appetitive aspects of sexual behavior, which are stimulated by endogenous opioids. These results are in accordance with the concept that analysis of anticipatory level-changing behavior can be used to assess sexual motivation.

Animals↗
PubMed1986

Aversive and appetitive properties of anxiogenic and anxiolytic agents.

The place-conditioning paradigm was used to assess the appetitive or aversive nature of anxiolytic and anxiogenic drugs. Rats were given a pre-conditioning preference test in which the time that they spent on each side of a two-compartment chamber was measured; each side was visually distinct. On two days they were confined to one side immediately after drug injection, and on alternate days they were confined to the other side after vehicle injection. The rats were then given a postconditioning preference test. The change in preference was used as the measure of the reinforcing properties of the drugs. The anxiolytic drugs diazepam, lorazepam, alprazolam, adinazolam, U-43, 465 and tracazolate produced a clear preference for the drug-associated side, indicating the appetitive qualities of these drugs. Preference was less clear for the anxiolytics chlordiazepoxide and buspirone. This suggests that it is possible to dissociate the rewarding and anxiolytic properties of drugs. All the anxiogenic drugs tested (CGS 8216, picrotoxin and yohimbine) produced conditioned aversion.

Animals↗
PubMed1977

Acquisition of appetitional and palpebral conditioned reflexes by the same infants.

The establishment of appetitional and palpebral conditioned reflexes was compared in three groups of 26 infants, 3--150 days old. The age range within each group at the beginning of conditioning was 0--20 days for both methods. The parameters compared were the time to reach equal criteria for the establishment of the conditioned response, and the nature of acquisition. The main results are as follows: (1) appetitional CR was established more quickly than palpebral CR; (2) the relative rates of conditioning in both methods were correlated in the same infants (r = 0.84; P<0.001); (3) the course of conditioning was in striking agreement in infants of the same age, both premature and full-term, for the two applied methods, but different for groups of infants of different ages. The results indicate that two quite different methods yield a picture of differences in the functional capacity of the CNS which are in close agreement with those for age.

Age Factors↗
PubMed2006

Control of thirst and salt appetite in rats: early inhibition of water and NaCl ingestion.

Most previous studies on the controls of thirst and salt appetite in rats have focused on systemic factors. Our recent experiments suggest that presystemic factors also are likely to play an important role. For example, dehydrated rats were found to consume similar volumes in an initial drinking bout when given access either to water or 0.05, 0.10, 0.15, or 0.20 M NaCl solution. Thus, cessation of the bouts evidently was not related to the concentration of fluid consumed but to its volume. It occurred despite the continued presence of known systemic stimuli for thirst (i.e. either increased plasma osmolality or decreased plasma volume), and therefore it resulted from inhibition rather than satiation. This inhibition appeared to derive from signals related to the cumulative volume of ingested fluid in the stomach and small intestine. Similar findings were obtained in studies of NaCl solution intake by NaCl-deprived adrenalectomized rats. These and other observations suggest that gastrointestinal fill generates stimuli that inhibit drinking in rats regardless of whether thirst or salt appetite motivates fluid consumption and regardless of whether rats consume water or NaCl solution.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

The role of previous exposure in the appetitive and consummatory effects of orexigenic neuropeptides.

The ingestion of foods is comprised of two distinct phases of behavior: appetitive and consummatory. While most food intake paradigms include both phases, the intraoral intake test emphasizes the stereotyped consummatory-phase by infusing a liquid food directly into the oral cavity. Several hypothalamic peptides have been shown to increase intake of chow in standard food intake paradigms and the current experiments sought to test whether these peptides would increase food intake in the intraoral intake paradigm. NPY, melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) and orexin-A were infused into the third ventricle (i3vt) in a counterbalanced latin-square design just prior to rats getting 0.1M sucrose solution infused via indwelling intraoral catheters and compared it to intake on bottle tests with access to the same sucrose solution. On the first day, each peptide increased intraoral intake relative to saline in the between-subjects comparison. Moreover, intake of sucrose following i3vt saline increased as a function of training. By the final day of the experiment, rats receiving saline consumed as much sucrose as rats receiving NPY, MCH, or orexin-A. This finding was conceptually replicated in the second experiment in which rats drank sucrose freely from a bottle on the home cage. A third experiment directly assessed the role of previous exposure in the sucrose intake induced by NPY. Those results confirm that repeated exposure to sucrose increases baseline intake and attenuates the hyperphagic effect of NPY. These results are consistent with two conclusions: (1) NPY, MCH, and orexin-A increase both appetitive and consummatory-phase ingestive behaviors on initial exposures; (2) repeated training interacts with the effects of these orexigenic peptides.

Administration, Oral↗
PubMed1997

Discriminated approach-avoidance task--a new paradigm for measuring both appetitive and aversive memory processes under identical test conditions.

Research on mnemonic processes in rats has predominantly made use of either appetitively or aversively motivated tasks. These behavioral paradigms are popular because rats are easily trained and a range of stimuli and response alternatives are available. Also, these paradigms have been generally found to be sensitive to pre- and post-trial manipulations with a variety of drugs having hypo- and hypermnesic effects. However, the available procedures do not permit a qualitative analysis of the memory changes, namely, a dissociation between the effect of a compound under study on the memory for pleasant versus unpleasant events, under the same experimental conditions. The discriminated approach-avoidance paradigm presented here is a novel method that enables this to be investigated quite easily, in rats. This behavioral paradigm was developed originally to assess the retrieval bias in the learned helplessness condition, and subsequently has been employed in studies of the pharmacological effects of several stress-related neuropeptides on appetitive and aversive memory processes.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Exercise in the treatment of obesity: effects of four interventions on body composition, resting energy expenditure, appetite, and mood.

This study investigated changes in body composition, resting energy expenditure (REE), appetite, and mood in 128 obese women who were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 treatment conditions: diet alone, diet plus aerobic training, diet plus strength training, or diet combined with aerobic and strength training (i.e., combined training). All women received the same 48-week group behavioral program and were prescribed the same diet. Exercising participants were provided 3 supervised exercise sessions per week for the first 28 weeks and 2 sessions weekly thereafter. Participants across the 4 conditions achieved a mean weight loss of 16.5 +/- 6.8 kg at Week 24, which decreased to 15.1 +/- 8.4 kg at Week 48. There were no significant differences among conditions at any time in changes in weight or body composition. Women who received aerobic training displayed significantly smaller reductions in REE at Week 24 than did those who received strength training. There were no other significant differences among conditions at any time on this variable or in changes in appetite and mood.

Adult↗
PubMed1984

Plasma cortisol and appetitively motivated arousal in monkeys.

A disagreement exists in the literature as to whether plasma glucocorticoids are a sensitive index of emotional arousal. In order to provide further data on this subject, arousal in adult male rhesus monkeys was produced by classical appetitive conditioning done once every 48 hr. Monkeys showed significantly more aroused behavior during CS+ sessions than during CS- sessions. Concurrent with these behavioral changes, appetitive conditioning suppressed the increase in plasma cortisol that took place in control conditions. This dissociation between cortisol and arousal provides additional data for the conclusion that plasma glucocorticoids are an insensitive index of arousal. The fact that glucocorticoids decrease dramatically under similar experimental conditions in rats suggests that hormonal regulatory mechanisms for this rodent species may differ from that for primates.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Casein and whey exert different effects on plasma amino acid profiles, gastrointestinal hormone secretion and appetite.

Protein, generally agreed to be the most satiating macronutrient, may differ in its effects on appetite depending on the protein source and variation in digestion and absorption. We investigated the effects of two milk protein types, casein and whey, on food intake and subjective ratings of hunger and fullness, and on postprandial metabolite and gastrointestinal hormone responses. Two studies were undertaken. The first study showed that energy intake from a buffet meal ad libitum was significantly less 90 min after a 1700 kJ liquid preload containing 48 g whey, compared with an equivalent casein preload (P<0.05). In the second study, the same whey preload led to a 28 % increase in postprandial plasma amino acid concentrations over 3 h compared with casein (incremental area under the curve (iAUC), P<0.05). Plasma cholecystokinin (CCK) was increased by 60 % (iAUC, P<0.005), glucagon-like peptide (GLP)-1 by 65 % (iAUC, P<0.05) and glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide by 36 % (iAUC, P<0.01) following the whey preload compared with the casein. Gastric emptying was influenced by protein type as evidenced by differing plasma paracetamol profiles with the two preloads. Greater subjective satiety followed the whey test meal (P<0.05). These results implicate post-absorptive increases in plasma amino acids together with both CCK and GLP-1 as potential mediators of the increased satiety response to whey and emphasise the importance of considering the impact of protein type on the appetite response to a mixed meal.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Are natural and unnatural appetites equally controllable? A response to Jensen's "Is continence enough?".

This response challenges Jensen's analysis in no substantial way. Rather, it explains more fully some of the moral character categories that Aristotle provides. It argues that Aristotle understood there to be two forms of continence: the continence that enables us to control natural appetites and"some form"of continence directed towards unnatural appetites, generally engendered by some pathology or abuse.

Behavior Therapy↗
PubMed1994

Endogenous opioids are differentially involved in appetitive and consummatory aspects of sexual behavior of male rats.

The sexual activity of 40 male Wistar rats was tested weekly in a bilevel test chamber to evaluate the involvement of endogenous opioids in the appetitive and consummatory aspects of sexual behavior. It has been suggested that the increase of the anticipatory level-changing behavior over repeated testing, displayed before the introduction of a receptive female, is sexually motivated. Two doses of the opioid antagonist naloxone, 1 and 10 mg/kg, prevented the increase of the anticipatory level-changing over four repeated tests of sexually experienced rats without prior experience in the bilevel test chamber and decreased the number of level changes of rats displaying a high number of level changes. Analysis of the pattern of inhibition suggested that the lower dose of naloxone may reduce sexual reward and that, in addition, the higher dose may block the expression of motivation. In contrast, naloxone treatment facilitated the efficiency of the sexual performance, with less mounts and intromissions preceding ejaculation and a shorter ejaculation latency, implying an inhibitory role of endogenous opioids in the neural control of some aspects of sexual performance (e.g., ejaculatory threshold). These results suggest that endogenous opioids may increase sexual appetite and diminish sexual performance.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed1998

Fos expression in rat brain during depletion-induced thirst and salt appetite.

The expression of Fos protein (Fos immunoreactivity, Fos-ir) was mapped in the brain of rats subjected to an angiotensin-dependent model of thirst and salt appetite. The physiological state associated with water and sodium ingestion was produced by the concurrent subcutaneous administration of the diuretic furosemide (10 mg/kg) and a low dose of the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor captopril (5 mg/kg; Furo/Cap treatment). The animals were killed 2 h posttreatment, and the brains were processed for Fos-ir to assess neural activation. Furo/Cap treatment significantly increased Fos-ir density above baseline levels both in structures of the lamina terminalis and hypothalamus known to mediate the actions of ANG II and in hindbrain regions associated with blood volume and pressure regulation. Furo/Cap treatment also typically increased Fos-ir density in these structures above levels observed after administration of furosemide or captopril separately. Fos-ir was reduced to a greater extent in forebrain than in hindbrain areas by a dose of captopril (100 mg/kg sc) known to block the actions of ACE in the brain. The present work provides further evidence that areas of lamina terminalis subserve angiotensin-dependent thirst and salt appetite.

Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors↗
PubMed1986

Centrally infused atrial natriuretic polypeptide attenuates exaggerated salt appetite in spontaneously hypertensive rats.

We have previously shown that atrial natriuretic polypeptide is present in the brain with the highest concentration in the hypothalamus and septum and that intracerebroventricular injection of atrial natriuretic polypeptide inhibits water drinking induced by centrally injected angiotensin II or 24-hour water deprivation in rats. To study further the role of brain atrial natriuretic polypeptide in the control of water and electrolyte balance, the effect of chronic intracerebroventricular infusion of atrial natriuretic polypeptide on salt appetite in spontaneously hypertensive rats and normotensive Wistar-Kyoto rats was examined with a free-choice, two-bottle preference test. The intracerebroventricular infusion of 100 ng/hour and 500 ng/hour of alpha-human atrial natriuretic polypeptide preferentially suppressed the intake of 0.30 M NaCl solution and attenuated the elevated preference for the hypertonic saline in spontaneously hypertensive rats while centrally infused alpha-human atrial natriuretic polypeptide had no significant effects on drinking behavior in Wistar-Kyoto rats. Blood pressure did not change significantly throughout the experiment in either rat strain. It is concluded that the exaggerated salt appetite in spontaneously hypertensive rats is blunted by centrally administered atrial natriuretic polypeptide. Such an effect of atrial natriuretic polypeptide along with its antidipsogenic effect suggests that brain atrial natriuretic polypeptide plays a role in water and electrolyte homeostasis and in blood pressure control.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Cachexia in chronic kidney disease: a link to defective central nervous system control of appetite.

Anorexia is one of several abnormalities characterizing chronic kidney disease (CKD) that cause cachexia, the loss of muscle and adipose stores. It has been attributed to mechanisms ranging from accumulation of toxic "middle molecules" to psychological problems. In this issue of the JCI, Cheung and coworkers used elegant techniques to demonstrate that CKD-associated anorexia is caused by defective hypothalamic regulation of appetite. They attributed the defect to an alteration in the hypothalamus's response to leptin and inflammation. Since similar hypothalamic defects suppress appetite in inflammatory states and in cancer, it is possible that anorexia in several cachexia-inducing conditions results from a common set of hypothalamic abnormalities. The development of small molecules capable of preventing these regulatory abnormalities holds the promise of eliminating the contribution of anorexia to the development of cachexia.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Induction of a phosphate appetite in adult male and female rats.

We have reported that dietary inorganic phosphate (Pi) deprivation induces a Pi-seeking behavior in juvenile male rats. The purpose of the present study was to determine whether the Pi appetite is present in adult animals, and if so, whether it is altered during times of increased demand for Pi, such as pregnancy and lactation. Both male and female animals fed a low-phosphate diet (LPD) ingested significantly greater amounts of PiH(2)O daily than their normal phosphate diet (NPD) controls, and per 100 g of body weight (BW), the female animals fed LPD tended to ingest greater amounts of PiH(2)O than male rats fed LPD. Pregnant and lactating rats fed LPD ingested significantly more PiH(2)O than those fed NPD, however, neither group displayed a Pi appetite different than virgin females. However, lactation further reduced Pi levels in plasma and cerebral spinal fluid compared with control values. Despite the additional Pi from the PiH(2)O in the mothers fed LPD, pup birth weight was significantly lower than in NPD litters, and this was exacerbated 9 days after birth. This attenuated BW gain was associated with lower plasma Pi levels in the pups. In conclusion, a mild but consistent Pi-seeking behavior is induced in adult male and female rats after only 2 days of dietary Pi restriction. On a relative basis, the amount of PiH(2)O ingested is greater in female than in male animals, but does not increase further during pregnancy and lactation.

Animals↗
PubMed1996

Adjunctive Use of Appetite Suppressant Medications for Improved Weight Management in Bariatric Surgical Patients.

BACKGROUND: Patients who undergo bariatric surgery sometimes experience late onset or weight gain, when they lapse into negative eating patterns, which adversely affect weight management. Long-term weight management is a process, with a surgical foundation, and requiring adjunctive strategies for best results. We sought to determine if appetite suppressant medications could be safely incorporated into a comprehensive program of weight management. METHODS: Subjects were at least 18 months postoperative, were accessible for weekly follow-up, and weighed at least 9 kg more than their ideal body weight. Phentermine and fenfluramine were prescribed in combination, at the lowest dose necessary to achieve comfortable appetite suppression. RESULTS: Weight losses ranged from 4.5 to 22.7 kg, over a 12-week course of treatment, corresponding to 8-65% of excess body weight. Most side-effects were minor, and did not require cessation of treatment. Two patients discontinued treatment due to side-effects which were unacceptable to them. CONCLUSION: Phentermine and fenfluramine are a safe and useful adjunct to a comprehensive program of weight management.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2003

Dopamine and octopamine differentiate between aversive and appetitive olfactory memories in Drosophila.

The catecholamines play a major role in the regulation of behavior. Here we investigate, in the fly Drosophila melanogaster, the role of dopamine and octopamine (the presumed arthropod homolog of norepinephrine) during the formation of appetitive and aversive olfactory memories. We find that for the formation of both types of memories, cAMP signaling is necessary and sufficient within the same subpopulation of mushroom-body intrinsic neurons. On the other hand, memory formation can be distinguished by the requirement for different catecholamines, dopamine for aversive and octopamine for appetitive conditioning. Our results suggest that in associative conditioning, different memories are formed of the same odor under different circumstances, and that they are linked to the respective motivational systems by their specific modulatory pathways.

Animals↗
PubMed1982

Fatal heat-stroke in a child taking appetite-suppressant drugs.

An 11-year-old girl who was taking two appetite-suppressant agents as part of a weight-reducing regimen developed heat-stroke while taking part in a 'nature hike' at an ambient temperature of 34 degrees C. The other 107 participating children suffered no significant ill-effects. Sympathomimetic amines used as appetite suppressants can produce heat intolerance by two mechanisms: they increase endogenous heat production as a result of their stimulatory effects on the central nervous system, and they impede the dissipation of heat from the body by producing peripheral vasoconstriction.

Child↗