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PubMed2003

Complete genome sequence and comparative analysis of the industrial microorganism Streptomyces avermitilis.

Species of the genus Streptomyces are of major pharmaceutical interest because they synthesize a variety of bioactive secondary metabolites. We have determined the complete nucleotide sequence of the linear chromosome of Streptomyces avermitilis. S. avermitilis produces avermectins, a group of antiparasitic agents used in human and veterinary medicine. The genome contains 9,025,608 bases (average GC content, 70.7%) and encodes at least 7,574 potential open reading frames (ORFs). Thirty-five percent of the ORFs (2,664) constitute 721 paralogous families. Thirty gene clusters related to secondary metabolite biosynthesis were identified, corresponding to 6.6% of the genome. Comparison with Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2) revealed that an internal 6.5-Mb region in the S. avermitilis genome was highly conserved with respect to gene order and content, and contained all known essential genes but showed perfectly asymmetric structure at the oriC center. In contrast, the terminal regions were not conserved and preferentially contained nonessential genes.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Structure trees and species trees: what they say about morphological development and evolution.

The evolutionary history of morphological structures generally is equated with that of the taxa that carry them. It is argued here that, analogous to genes, developmental genetic pathways underlying morphological structures may be subject to developmental evolutionary changes that result, for instance, in duplication (serial homology analogous to gene duplication and paralogy). Entities that undergo evolution are expected to be related to each other as a tree. Just as with molecular evolution, "structure trees" and species trees sometimes may be incongruent, with implications for morphological homology concepts. Detection of structure trees through morphological evolutionary analyses may point to an entity that is maintained through evolution, possibly in part because it is a developmentally integrated structure ("individualized"). This idea is illustrated in a morphological evolutionary analysis of leaf primordia. These analyses suggest that leaf primordia in monocots and close relatives are related to each other as a tree and, therefore, are developmentally integrated, evolving entities. Among monocot primordia this tree structure breaks down, and it is concluded that there is no entity, the "monocot leaf primordium." However, one group of primordia is identified within monocots that have uniform characteristics and that are well represented by model species maize and rice. Such analyses of structure trees can facilitate the extrapolation and interpretation of results from molecular developmental and other comparative studies.

Flowers↗
PubMed2001

Patterns of DNA sequence variation suggest the recent action of positive selection in the janus-ocnus region of Drosophila simulans.

Levels of nucleotide polymorphism in three paralogous Drosophila simulans genes, janusA (janA), janusB (janB), and ocnus (ocn), were surveyed by DNA sequencing. The three genes lie in tandem within a 2.5-kb region of chromosome arm 3R. In a sample of eight alleles from a worldwide distribution we found a significant departure from neutrality by several statistical tests. The most striking feature of this sample was that in a 1.7-kb region containing the janA and janB genes, 30 out of 31 segregating sites contained variants present only once in the sample, and 29 of these unique variants were found in the same allele. A restriction survey of an additional 28 lines of D. simulans revealed strong linkage disequilibrium over the janA-janB region and identified six more alleles matching the rare haplotype. Among the rare alleles, the level of DNA sequence variation was typical for D. simulans autosomal genes and showed no departure from neutrality. In addition, the rare haplotype was more similar to the D. melanogaster sequence, indicating that it was the ancestral form. These results suggest that the derived haplotype has risen to high worldwide frequency relatively recently, most likely as a result of natural selection.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Polymorphism and selection at the SerH immobilization antigen locus in natural populations of Tetrahymena thermophila.

The SerH locus of Tetrahymena thermophila is one of several paralogous loci with genes encoding variants of the major cell surface protein known as the immobilization antigen (i-ag). The locus is highly polymorphic, raising questions concerning functional equivalency and selective forces acting on its multiple alleles. Here, we compare the sequences and expression of SerH1, SerH3, SerH4, SerH5, and SerH6. The precursor i-ags are highly similar. They are rich in alanine, serine, threonine, and cysteine and they share nearly identical ER translocation and GPI addition signals. The locations of the 39 cysteines are highly conserved, particularly in the 3.5 central, imperfect tandem repeats in which 8 periodic cysteines punctuate alternating short and long stretches of amino acids. Hydrophobicity patterns are also conserved. Nevertheless, amino acid sequence identity is low, ranging from 60.7 to 82.9%. At the nucleotide level, from 9.7 to 26.7% of nucleotide sites are polymorphic in pairwise comparisons. Expression of each allele is regulated by temperature-sensitive mRNA stability. H mRNAs are stable at <36 degrees but are unstable at >36 degrees. The H5 mRNA, which is less affected by temperature, has a different arrangement of the putative mRNA destabilization motif AUUUA. Statistical analysis of SerH genes indicates that the multiple alleles are neutral. Significantly low ratios of the rates of nonsynonymous to synonymous amino acid substitutions suggest that the multiple alleles are subject to purifying (negative) selection enforcing constraints on structure.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed2003

CODEHOP (COnsensus-DEgenerate Hybrid Oligonucleotide Primer) PCR primer design.

We have developed a new primer design strategy for PCR amplification of distantly related gene sequences based on consensus-degenerate hybrid oligonucleotide primers (CODEHOPs). An interactive program has been written to design CODEHOP PCR primers from conserved blocks of amino acids within multiply-aligned protein sequences. Each CODEHOP consists of a pool of related primers containing all possible nucleotide sequences encoding 3-4 highly conserved amino acids within a 3' degenerate core. A longer 5' non-degenerate clamp region contains the most probable nucleotide predicted for each flanking codon. CODEHOPs are used in PCR amplification to isolate distantly related sequences encoding the conserved amino acid sequence. The primer design software and the CODEHOP PCR strategy have been utilized for the identification and characterization of new gene orthologs and paralogs in different plant, animal and bacterial species. In addition, this approach has been successful in identifying new pathogen species. The CODEHOP designer (http://blocks.fhcrc.org/codehop.html) is linked to BlockMaker and the Multiple Alignment Processor within the Blocks Database World Wide Web (http://blocks.fhcrc.org).

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed2001

Fungal Zuotin proteins evolved from MIDA1-like factors by lineage-specific loss of MYB domains.

Proteins are often characterized by the presence of multiple domains, which make specific contributions to their cellular function. While the gain of domains in proteins by duplication and shuffling is well established, domain loss is poorly documented. Here, we provide evidence that domain loss has played an important role in the evolution of protein architecture and function by demonstrating that fungal Zuotin proteins evolved from MIDA1-like proteins, present in animals and plants, by complete loss of the carboxyl-terminal MYB domains. Phylogenetic analyses of the DnaJ motif (the J domain) present in both Zuotin and MIDA1 proteins were complicated by the limited length and profound differences in evolutionary rates exhibited by this domain. To rigorously examine J domain phylogeny, we combined the nonparametric bootstrap with Monte Carlo simulation. This method, which we have designated the resampled parametric bootstrap, allowed us to assess type I and type II error associated with these analyses. These results revealed significant support for domain loss rather than domain gain or gene loss involving paralogs. The absence of sequences related to the MIDA1 MYB domains in Saccharomyces cerevisiae further indicates that the domains have been completely lost, consistent with known functional differences between Zuotin and MIDA1 proteins. These analyses suggest that the description of additional examples of complete domain loss may provide a method to identify orthologous proteins exhibiting functional differences using genomic sequence data.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed2005

Analysis of the role of HP0208, a phase-variable open reading frame, and its homologues HP1416 and HP0159 in the biosynthesis of Helicobacter pylori lipopolysaccharide.

The roles of the three ORFs HP0208, HP0159 and HP1416 in the biosynthesis of Helicobacter pylori 26695 LPS were investigated in this study. These ORFs represent a paralogous family of genes with homology to the Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (hereafter referred to as S. typhimurium) waaJ gene, which encodes an alpha-1,2-glycosyltransferase required for core LPS biosynthesis. HP0208 contains multiple tandem repeats of the dimer 5'GA at its 5' end and its expression is predicted to be subject to phase variation. The number of 5'GA repeats present in this ORF was found to be non-permissive for the expression of HP0208 in the majority of H. pylori strains examined. To determine a role for this ORF in LPS biosynthesis a non-phase-variable, constitutively expressed variant of HP0208 was constructed and introduced into the genome of H. pylori 26695. Analysis of the LPS profile of this strain by Tricine-SDS-PAGE and immunoblotting with anti-Lewis Y antigen (Le(y)) mAbs confirmed a role for HP0208 in the biosynthesis of core LPS. A role for HP0159 and HP1416 in the biosynthesis of core LPS was also established. Although homologous to waaJ, H. pylori HP0208, HP0159 and HP1416 failed to complement an S. typhimurium waaJ mutant, suggesting that these ORFs encode functionally different enzymes.

Bacterial Proteins↗
PubMed2003

Ancient origin of the tryptophan operon and the dynamics of evolutionary change.

The seven conserved enzymatic domains required for tryptophan (Trp) biosynthesis are encoded in seven genetic regions that are organized differently (whole-pathway operons, multiple partial-pathway operons, and dispersed genes) in prokaryotes. A comparative bioinformatics evaluation of the conservation and organization of the genes of Trp biosynthesis in prokaryotic operons should serve as an excellent model for assessing the feasibility of predicting the evolutionary histories of genes and operons associated with other biochemical pathways. These comparisons should provide a better understanding of possible explanations for differences in operon organization in different organisms at a genomics level. These analyses may also permit identification of some of the prevailing forces that dictated specific gene rearrangements during the course of evolution. Operons concerned with Trp biosynthesis in prokaryotes have been in a dynamic state of flux. Analysis of closely related organisms among the Bacteria at various phylogenetic nodes reveals many examples of operon scission, gene dispersal, gene fusion, gene scrambling, and gene loss from which the direction of evolutionary events can be deduced. Two milestone evolutionary events have been mapped to the 16S rRNA tree of Bacteria, one splitting the operon in two, and the other rejoining it by gene fusion. The Archaea, though less resolved due to a lesser genome representation, appear to exhibit more gene scrambling than the Bacteria. The trp operon appears to have been an ancient innovation; it was already present in the common ancestor of Bacteria and Archaea. Although the operon has been subjected, even in recent times, to dynamic changes in gene rearrangement, the ancestral gene order can be deduced with confidence. The evolutionary history of the genes of the pathway is discernible in rough outline as a vertical line of descent, with events of lateral gene transfer or paralogy enriching the analysis as interesting features that can be distinguished. As additional genomes are thoroughly analyzed, an increasingly refined resolution of the sequential evolutionary steps is clearly possible. These comparisons suggest that present-day trp operons that possess finely tuned regulatory features are under strong positive selection and are able to resist the disruptive evolutionary events that may be experienced by simpler, poorly regulated operons.

Evolution, Molecular↗
PubMed2006

Phylogenomic analysis of vertebrate thrombospondins reveals fish-specific paralogues, ancestral gene relationships and a tetrapod innovation.

BACKGROUND: Thrombospondins (TSPs) are evolutionarily-conserved, extracellular, calcium-binding glycoproteins with important roles in cell-extracellular matrix interactions, angiogenesis, synaptogenesis and connective tissue organisation. Five TSPs, designated TSP-1 through TSP-5, are encoded in the human genome. All but one have known roles in acquired or inherited human diseases. To further understand the roles of TSPs in human physiology and pathology, it would be advantageous to extend the repertoire of relevant vertebrate models. In general the zebrafish is proving an excellent model organism for vertebrate biology, therefore we set out to evaluate the status of TSPs in zebrafish and two species of pufferfish. RESULTS: We identified by bioinformatics that three fish species encode larger numbers of TSPs than vertebrates, yet all these sequences group as homologues of TSP-1 to -4. By phylogenomic analysis of neighboring genes, we uncovered that, in fish, a TSP-4-like sequence is encoded from the gene corresponding to the tetrapod TSP-5 gene. Thus, all TSP genes show conservation of synteny between fish and tetrapods. In the human genome, the TSP-1, TSP-3, TSP-4 and TSP-5 genes lie within paralogous regions that provide insight into the ancestral genomic context of vertebrate TSPs. CONCLUSION: A new model for TSP evolution in vertebrates is presented. The TSP-5 protein sequence has evolved rapidly from a TSP-4-like sequence as an innovation in the tetrapod lineage. TSP biology in fish is complicated by the presence of additional lineage- and species-specific TSP paralogues. These novel results give deeper insight into the evolution of TSPs in vertebrates and open new directions for understanding the physiological and pathological roles of TSP-4 and TSP-5 in humans.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed2006

Polymorphisms in the glucocerebrosidase gene and pseudogene urge caution in clinical analysis of Gaucher disease allele c.1448T>C (L444P).

BACKGROUND: Gaucher disease is a potentially severe lysosomal storage disorder caused by mutations in the human glucocerebrosidase gene (GBA). We have developed a multiplexed genetic assay for eight diseases prevalent in the Ashkenazi population: Tay-Sachs, Gaucher type I, Niemann-Pick types A and B, mucolipidosis type IV, familial dysautonomia, Canavan, Bloom syndrome, and Fanconi anemia type C. This assay includes an allelic determination for GBA allele c.1448T>C (L444P). The goal of this study was to clinically evaluate this assay. METHODS: Biotinylated, multiplex PCR products were directly hybridized to capture probes immobilized on fluorescently addressed microspheres. After incubation with streptavidin-conjugated fluorophore, the reactions were analyzed by Luminex IS100. Clinical evaluations were conducted using de-identified patient DNA samples. RESULTS: We evaluated a multiplexed suspension array assay that includes wild-type and mutant genetic determinations for Gaucher disease allele c.1448T>C. Two percent of samples reported to be wild-type by conventional methods were observed to be c.1448T>C heterozygous using our assay. Sequence analysis suggested that this phenomenon was due to co-amplification of the functional gene and a paralogous pseudogene (PsiGBA) due to a polymorphism in the primer-binding site of the latter. Primers for the amplification of this allele were then repositioned to span an upstream deletion in the pseudogene, yielding a much longer amplicon. Although it is widely reported that long amplicons negatively impact amplification or detection efficiency in recently adopted multiplex techniques, this assay design functioned properly and resolved the occurrence of false heterozygosity. CONCLUSION: Although previously available sequence information suggested GBA gene/pseudogene discrimination capabilities with a short amplified product, we identified common single-nucleotide polymorphisms in the pseudogene that required amplification of a larger region for effective discrimination.

Alleles↗
PubMed2006

GODZ-mediated palmitoylation of GABA(A) receptors is required for normal assembly and function of GABAergic inhibitory synapses.

Golgi-specific DHHC (Asp-His-His-Cys) zinc finger protein (GODZ) is a DHHC family palmitoyl acyltransferase that is implicated in palmitoylation and regulated trafficking of diverse substrates that function either at inhibitory or excitatory synapses. Of particular interest is the gamma2 subunit of GABA(A) receptors, which is required for targeting these receptors to inhibitory synapses. Here, we report that GODZ and, to a lesser extent, its close paralog sertoli cell gene with a zinc finger domain-beta (SERZ-beta) are the main members of the DHHC family of enzymes that are able to palmitoylate the gamma2 subunit in heterologous cells. Yeast two-hybrid and colocalization assays in human embryonic kidney 293T (HEK293T) cells indicate that GODZ and SERZ-beta show indistinguishable palmitoylation-dependent interaction with the gamma2 subunit. After coexpression in HEK293T cells, they form homomultimers and heteromultimers, as shown by coimmunoprecipitation and in vivo cross-linking experiments. Analyses in neurons transfected with dominant-negative GODZ (GODZ(C157S)) or plasmid-based GODZ-specific RNAi indicate that GODZ is required for normal accumulation of GABA(A) receptors at synapses, for normal whole-cell and synaptic GABAergic inhibitory function and, indirectly, for GABAergic innervation. Unexpectedly, GODZ was found to be dispensable for normal postsynaptic AMPA receptor-mediated glutamatergic transmission. We conclude that GODZ-mediated palmitoylation of GABA(A) receptors and possibly other substrates contributes selectively to the formation and normal function of GABAergic inhibitory synapses.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed2003

Localization of a site for interaction with hepatic male-specific proteins in two rat estrogen sulfotransferase genes.

Using electromobility shift assay the interaction of fragments of two paralogous rat estrogen sulfotransferase (Ste) genes with proteins of nuclear extracts from male and female rat liver was studied. Male-specific DNA-protein complexes were revealed with labeled oligonucleotides corresponding to fragments +1150/+1449, +1358/+1449, +1397/+1449, and +1417/+1449 of intron 1 of the Ste1 gene. The removal of a 20 bp region corresponding to the sequence +1430/+1449, or even either 5;- or 3;-terminal 5 bp of this region abolished the selective interaction of the oligonucleotides with the male-specific protein(s). According to the results of the experiments on mutual competition of the oligonucleotides, the fragment of the Ste2 gene corresponding to the sequence +1397/+1449 of the Ste1 gene formed complexes with the same male-specific protein(s) as the fragment of the Ste1 gene did. The data suggest the mapped element to participate in gender differentiation of the expression of the Ste1 and Ste2 genes.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Orthologs, paralogs, and evolutionary genomics.

Orthologs and paralogs are two fundamentally different types of homologous genes that evolved, respectively, by vertical descent from a single ancestral gene and by duplication. Orthology and paralogy are key concepts of evolutionary genomics. A clear distinction between orthologs and paralogs is critical for the construction of a robust evolutionary classification of genes and reliable functional annotation of newly sequenced genomes. Genome comparisons show that orthologous relationships with genes from taxonomically distant species can be established for the majority of the genes from each sequenced genome. This review examines in depth the definitions and subtypes of orthologs and paralogs, outlines the principal methodological approaches employed for identification of orthology and paralogy, and considers evolutionary and functional implications of these concepts.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Root cap specific expression of an endo-beta-1,4-D-glucanase (cellulase): a new marker to study root development in Arabidopsis.

The sloughing of root cap cells from the root tip is important because it assists the growing root in penetrating the soil. Using a promoter-reporter (GUS) and RT-PCR analysis, we identified an endo-beta-1,4-glucanase (AtCel5) of Arabidopsis thaliana that is expressed exclusively in root cap cells of both primary and secondary roots. Expression is inhibited by high concentrations of IAA, both exogenous and internal, as well as by ABA. AtCel5 expression begins once the mature tissue pattern is established and continues for 3 weeks. GUS staining is observed in both root cap cells that are still attached and cells that have already been shed. Using AtCel5-GUS as a marker, we observed that the root cap cells begin to separate at the sides of the tip while the cells of the central region of the tip separate last. Separation involves sequential tiers of intact cells that separate from the periphery of the root tip. A homozygous T-DNA insertion mutant that does not express AtCel5 forms the root cap and sheds root cap cells but sloughing is less efficient compared to wild type. The reduction in sloughing in the mutant does not affect the overall growth performance of the plant in loose media. The modest effect of abolishing AtCel5 expression suggests that there are multiple redundant genes regulating the process of sloughing of the root cap, including AtCel3/At1g71380, the paralog of the AtCel5 gene that is also expressed in the root cap cells. Thus, these two endo-1,4-beta-D-glucanases may have a role in the sloughing of border cells from the root tip. We propose that AtCel5, provides a new molecular marker to further analyze the process of root cap cell separation and a root cap specific promoter for targeting to the environment genes with beneficial properties for plant growth.

Abscisic Acid↗
PubMed2002

Going nuclear: gene family evolution and vertebrate phylogeny reconciled.

Gene duplications have been common throughout vertebrate evolution, introducing paralogy and so complicating phylogenetic inference from nuclear genes. Reconciled trees are one method capable of dealing with paralogy, using the relationship between a gene phylogeny and the phylogeny of the organisms containing those genes to identify gene duplication events. This allows us to infer phylogenies from gene families containing both orthologous and paralogous copies. Vertebrate phylogeny is well understood from morphological and palaeontological data, but studies using mitochondrial sequence data have failed to reproduce this classical view. Reconciled tree analysis of a database of 118 vertebrate gene families supports a largely classical vertebrate phylogeny.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Plant allelochemicals differentially regulate Helicoverpa zea cytochrome P450 genes.

Four cytochrome P450 genes, CYP6B8, CYP6B9, CYP6B27 and CYP6B28, exist in the Helicoverpa zea genome as two pairs of paralogs that evolved from gene duplication and 5'-polar gene conversion events. RT-PCR gel blot analyses have shown that all of these genes are expressed constitutively in midguts of all larval instars, suggesting that they have primary roles in the detoxification of plant allelochemicals. Among these, CYP6B9 is expressed only in midgut tissue whereas its paralog, CYP6B27, is expressed primarily in midgut and secondarily in fat body and ovary. CYP6B28 is expressed in midgut, fat body and, to lesser extents in ovary and integument whereas its paralog, CYP6B8, is expressed in midgut and to some extent in fat body. Comparison of the expression levels induced by eight plant allelochemicals, one drug (phenobarbital), and an insecticide (alpha-cypermethrin) indicates that, for the most part, the four P450s respond individually to these inducers, with all four induced strongly by chlorogenic acid, a shikimate pathway intermediate and a lignin biosynthesis intermediate present in a wide variety of plants, and indole-3-carbinol, a glucobrassicin breakdown product present in the Brassicaceae. The multiple levels at which these P450 genes are apparently diverging (e.g. transcriptional responses, protein sequences) support the suggestion that gene conversion events facilitate gene evolution by allowing duplicated copies greater time to acquire selectable differences in both coding and promoter sequences.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

A survey of the molecular evolutionary dynamics of twenty-five multigene families from four grass taxa.

We surveyed the molecular evolutionary characteristics of 25 plant gene families, with the goal of better understanding general processes in plant gene family evolution. The survey was based on 247 GenBank sequences representing four grass species (maize, rice, wheat, and barley). For each gene family, orthology and paralogy relationships were uncertain. Recognizing this uncertainty, we characterized the molecular evolution of each gene family in four ways. First, we calculated the ratio of nonsynonymous to synonymous substitutions (d(N)/d(S)) both on branches of gene phylogenies and across codons. Our results indicated that the d(N)/d(S) ratio was statistically heterogeneous across branches in 17 of 25 (68%) gene families. The vast majority of d(N)/d(S) estimates were <<1.0, suggestive of selective constraint on amino acid replacements, and no estimates were >1.0, either across phylogenetic lineages or across codons. Second, we tested separately for nonsynonymous and synonymous molecular clocks. Sixty-eight percent of gene families rejected a nonsynonymous molecular clock, and 52% of gene families rejected a synonymous molecular clock. Thus, most gene families in this study deviated from clock-like evolution at either synonymous or nonsynonymous sites. Third, we calculated the effective number of codons and the proportion of G+C synonymous sites for each sequence in each gene family. One or both quantities vary significantly within 18 of 25 gene families. Finally, we tested for gene conversion, and only six gene families provided evidence of gene conversion events. Altogether, evolution for these 25 gene families is marked by selective constraint that varies among gene family members, a lack of molecular clock at both synonymous and nonsynonymous sites, and substantial variation in codon usage.

DNA↗
PubMed2026

Genome-wide identification and characterization of 1-amino-cyclopropane-1- carboxylate synthase (ACS) gene family in Carica papaya and expression insights in response to hormone stress.

ACC-synthase (1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate synthase), also known as the ACS gene, plays a pivotal role in ethylene production, which is of great importance in the fruit ripening process for producing saleable yield (marketable fruit). The ACS gene family presumably controls stress responses, plant growth and development, and particularly fruit ripening. Computational biology was used as an essential tool to identify seven ACS genes in Carica papaya (red hermaphrodite) using an RNA-seq database (NCBI GEO). Further, the phylogenetic relationships of ACS genes determined gene family resemblance in the genomes of Hordeum vulgare, Musa acuminata, C. papaya, and Arabidopsis thaliana; therefore, the identified gene families were further classified into four distinct clades (Type-I, Type-II, Type-III, and Type-IV) in alignment with the well-established Arabidopsis classification. Moreover, encompassing gene structure, domain motifs, cis-element phylogenetic profiling, synteny, and transcriptomic profiling unveiled latent structural and functional attributes within CpACS genes. Through segmental duplication of CpACS, insights into evolutionary duplication events were predicted. The paralogous behavior of ACS genes in C. papaya and a comprehensive transcriptomic analysis demonstrated both up- and down-regulation patterns in response to ethylene treatment at different time points during the fruit ripening process, using the papaya manual handbook V2 (2021). Gene expression showed upregulation of two essential CpACS genes, CpACS5 and CpACS6. RT-qPCR validates the expression of these important genes during fruit ripening. However, one gene, CpACS7, is expressed in the later stages of fruit development. Our results demonstrated novel avenues for understanding the expression pathways of the ACS gene family in red hermaphrodite papaya, and most of these genes were linked to regulating various abiotic stresses, plant growth, and fruit development.

Carica↗