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PubMed1989

Man systems aspects in the design concept of the Columbus Man-Tended Free-Flyer (MTFF).

The Man-Tended Free-Flyer (MTFF) of the European Space Agency's COLUMBUS Program is a free flying pressurized laboratory in which payload processes will be performed in an automatic mode, i.e. without presence of man. Payload servicing as well as spacecraft servicing will be conducted by man i.e. when man-tended. The paper describes the effect of the temporary presence of man on the MTFF design concept, the requirements concerning functions, safety and redundancy of the vital spacecraft subsystems and the work environment for the astronauts. A next step is manned activities in space is an extended combined MTFF/HERMES Mission where, in addition to MTFF servicing, payload processing will be conducted in the MTFF, involving the HERMES crew. Man systems aspects of the MTFF for this extended mission will be addressed. In a growth scenario towards European's permanent presence of man in space, the MTFF is intended to represent a building block for an European Station. The effect of the growth requirement for the MTFF of supporting permanent manned operation will be described. The COLUMBUS Program also includes a Pressurized Laboratory Module which will be attached to the US-International Space Station (ISS). Similarities between that Module and the MTFF related to Man Systems aspects will be shown.

Equipment Design↗
PubMed1964

Life and space.

The studies dealing with the detection of life on planets and in space will have two periods. The first period will be associated with the application of automatical devices, which will detect living creatures, whereas the second, more late, period will be concerned with the investigations provided by man himself. In these studies one should proceed from the idea of life on the Earth, and, consequently, look for living creatures containing no water, no carbon dioxide, etc. only after obtaining negative results in searching for creatures similar to those living on the Earth. The whole course of "chemical evolution" on the Earth proves the necessity of the detection on other planets of heterotrophic microorganisms at first, and only afterwards to look for specialized forms, i.e. chemo- and photoautotrophs. It is usually underestimated that as a result of adaptation to certain ecological conditions existing on planets living creatures may appear, which will distinctly differ in their biological properties from terrestrial forms. At present there is no faultless investigation which is able to prove to existence of cosmobionts in meteorites. The appropriate experiments convince us that soil bacteria. may penetrate into the central parts of meteorites, which have been lying in the ground. Samplings at high altitudes with the aid of aerostats or the rockets are difficult to provide because of the possibility of pollution of samples by terrestrial microbes. It is therefore necessary to elaborate special devices and new methods for sampling. The most perfect instrument for the detection of microorganisms will be a device, which will record the multiplication rate of microbes in the liquid media simultaneously by means of different methods: manometry, nephelometry, potentiometry and the determination of radioactive carbon dioxide which is extracted during the breakdown of organic substances.

Atmosphere↗
PubMed1964

Organic constituents of carbonaceous chondrites.

From a brief discussion of forms of meteorite carbon it is concluded that almost all the carbon in the carbonaceous chondrites is present as organic matter. Attempts to extract and identify this organic matter are then reviewed. It is shown that only 25 per cent has been extracted and only about 5 per cent chemically characterized. Of this 5 per cent, most is a complex mixture of hydroxylated aromatic acids together with various hydrocarbons of the paraffin, naphthene and aromatic series. Small amounts of amino acids, sugars and fatty acids also are present. The possible chemical nature of the major fraction is discussed. It is suggested to be a mixture of high-molecular weight aromatic and hydrocarbon polymers. Possible sources of contamination of the meteorites are described and evidence indicating a general lack of organic contaminants is presented. It is concluded, that most of the organic constituents are indigenous to the meteorites and are extra terrestrial in origin. Synthetic processes for the compounds are mentioned and it is concluded that the organic material is probably of abiogenic origin. A brief review on studies of "organized elements" contained within the meteorites is presented. Difficulties of identification are discussed and photographs of some microstructures of several carbonaceous chondrites are presented. No final conclusion about the nature of these objects is possible, but some appear to be various indigenous organic and mineral structures, while others are terrestrial contaminants.

Amino Acids↗
PubMed1966

Simulation of organismic morphology and behavior by synthetic poly-alpha-amino acids.

Experiments imitating spontaneous geothermal occurrences have yielded most of the amino acids found in protein. All of the amino acids found in protein are simultaneously condensed, by heating in a range of appropriate conditions, to polymers which have many of the properties of proteins. These properties include molecular weights of many thousand, digestibility by proteolytic enzymes, and catalytic activities. One of the other properties is the tendency to form structured units; these units have many of the attributes of biocells. The processes indicated, and others, comprise a conceptual continuum which, according to accumulated information, must have occurred under the conditions existing in regions of the primitive Earth.

Amino Acids↗
PubMed1966

The possibility of life in outer space.

Experiments were carried out dealing with the effect of extreme factors on microorganisms. Methods for microbiological analysis of meteorites were developed. The effect of temperature, from -20 degrees C to +15 degrees C, on trypsine activity was studied. It was shown that at about -3 degrees C a definite intramolecular reorganization occurs in the enzyme, leading to decreased activation energy. Previously reported resistance of microorganisms to high vacuum was confirmed. New species were tested at l0(-8)-10(-9) mm Hg. It was shown that very thin metal and metal oxide films, as well as films from other substances, may fully protect microorganisms from the hazardous effect of UV rays. By using an artificial climate, camera forms of microorganisms were selected which have the highest resistance to the whole complex of Martian climatic factors. Pigmented and spore-forming microorganisms resist UV up to a dose of 4.04 x 10(8) erg/cm2. There are microorganisms on Earth which show some activity in soil at a relative humidity of 0.096-0.196%. Preliminary data permit one to assume the possibility of existence of Earth-like forms on Mars. The majority of meteorites are accessible to Earth microorganisms. While choosing a meteorite for microbiological analysis it is necessary to consider the soil and climatic factors of the country where the latter has been found.

Bacillus↗
PubMed1966

A review of evidence for biological material in meteorites.

The first carbonaceous chondrite fell in France in 1806, and in the years following analyses for organic matter were made which showed this material to be similar to material of biological origin. But the analyses were not conclusive. Within the last few years, additional work has been done which has proved to be very interesting and somewhat controversial. The composition of the inorganic fraction of these objects is very similar to that of other meteorites, showing that no sorting by sedimentary processes has occurred. For this reason, students of meteorites have believed that the material could not be biological. However, the soluble constituents are similar to those to be expected in a primitive ocean of the earth. Some of the assumed fossils have been shown to be contaminants but others appear to be indigenous. After mineral matters are removed from them they still show evidence of containing carbonaceous material. Micro-paleontologists have also reported material which they believe to be similar to terrestrial fossils. Fatty acids, porphyrins, and nucleic acid bases have been reported and a small optical activity as well. The immense difficulty that students of meteorites have in understanding this situation may be alleviated if it should be proved that some of our stone meteorites, including the carbonaceous ones, are coming from the moon. There seems to be some possibility that this could be true.

Carboxylic Acids↗
PubMed1966

Paraffinic hydrocarbons in the Orgueil, Murray, Mokoia and other meteorites.

Small samples of the Orgueil (Wiik Type I), Murray (Wiik Type II), Mokoia (Wiik Type III) and other meteorites (Alais, Ivuna, Al Rais, Bells, Cold Bokkeveld, Mighei, Nogoya, Santa Cruz, Grosnaja, Kaba, Lance, Ornans, Chainpur, Karoonda, Warrenton, and St. Caprais) were extracted with organic solvents, fractionated by silica gel chromatography, and analyzed by gas chromatography and by a new gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric technique. Only the high molecular weight hydrocarbons eluted by n-heptane were analyzed. The following observations were made: All meteorites contain paraffinic hydrocarbons in varying amounts and with a certain distribution. Normal and isomeric alkanes from Cl5 to about C25 with a maximum at C19-C21 were found in the Orgueil, Murray and Mokoia meteorites. Pristane and phytane, two saturated polyisoprenoid hydrocarbons, known to be degradation products of chlorophyll, were found in all meteorites except the Ornans, although in several (Type I and Type III, except Mokoia) the amounts were very small. No predominance of odd over even carbon-number hydrocarbons was observed except in the C22-C27 normal alkane range of some samples of the Orgueil. The concentration of alkanes in certain samples of the Orgueil was found to be about one order of magnitude lower than in others indicating a significant heterogeneity in the distribution of hydrocarbons. Practically all the meteorites of Type II and some of Type III (Mokoia) gave an essentially identical or very similar hydrocarbon chromatographic pattern, indicating a common origin for the hydrocarbons. The distribution of paraffinic hydrocarbons, including pristane and phytane, in some of these meteorites was found similar to that of microfossil-bearing pre-Cambrian rocks 2 x 10(9) years old or older. The Orguiel was similar to the Gunflint chert and Type II meteorites were similar to the Soudan rock. It remains to be seen whether these hydrocarbons were formed on the earth-moon system as suggested by Urey, on the asteroids, in the solar nebula, or whether they may be the result of a unique terrestrial contamination process.

Alkanes↗
PubMed1967

Exobiology and the effect of physical factors on micro-organisms.

A study of the action of different physical factors on micro-organisms is necessary for a further development of exobiology. The action of temperature on crystalline preparations of catalase and peroxidase was studied by means of oscillographic polarography. A determination of the height of polarographic waves at the decrease of temperature from 20 degrees C to 0 degrees C has shown that structural elements of the peroxidase molecule connected with the enzymatic activity are more stable with the decrease of temperature cf. catalase. A relative resistance of the dehydrogenase activity in Az. vinelandii cells to high vacuum was found. Incubation of azotobacter cells under vacuum of 10(-9) mm Hg during 72 hr did not decrease the activity of alcohol and succinic dehydrogenase. Bac. cereus spores can be preserved from bactericidal UV action by thin films of chrome. The thickness of chrome film being 200-670 angstroms, spores are killed by a dose of 7.8 x 10(7) erg/cm2 at 253.7 microns wave length. Spores covered by chrome film thicker than 800 angstroms remain alive after this treatment. Investigations carried out with an 'Artificial Mars' camera led to the following results. The growth of Bac. megaterium on liquid growth media in this camera ceases as a result of UV rays killing all cells after 3 weeks. Untreated bacteria grow in the camera for a long time. Spore-forming bacteria isolated from the sand of the Kara-Kum Desert grow in ground limonite (with the addition of 2% garden soil) having maximum hygroscopic humidity (3.8%). Freezing and thawing (from -60 degrees C to +25 degrees C) corresponding to day temperature deviations on Mars, low pressure (P=10 mm Hg) and the composition of the atmosphere (CO2-50%, N2-40%, Ar-10%) do not influence the growth of xerophylic bacteria under study. Humidity is the main factor limiting the growth of micro-organisms under 'Artificial Mars' conditions. According to the further development of the microbiological meteorite analysis methods, samples of rocks and stone meteorites were sterilized, incubated in the desert or on a snow surface in the Arctic and after different times (from 100 days to 7 months), investigated. In all cases, microbes were found only on the sample surfaces, whereas 1 cm from the surface and in the central parts micro-organism were completely absent. Hence, microbiological analysis of central parts of meteorites fallen in the Arctic or during dry periods of the year in the desert can give reliable results.

Alcohol Dehydrogenase↗
PubMed2001

[Biological crisis at the end of the Cretaceous and the extinction of the dinosaurs. Validity of the cosmic hypothesis].

The history of life, which appeared more than 500 million years ago, has been characterized by a constant faunal and floral turnover. On five occasions, the background extinctions has become a mass extinction (ME), i.e. a major biotic crisis collapsing the upward curve of the biodiversity. The mass extinction of the end of the Permian is the most murderous but the end-Cretaceous one, which experiences dinosaur's death, is the most well-known. In fact, these land-dwelling reptiles with upright limbs, as well as the pterosaurs, the mosasaurs and numerous invertebrates die as far as the last. There exists a lot of hypotheses tending to explain their death but they are often extravagant and/or impossible to be verified. The last one, referring to a collapse between the earth and a heavenly large bolide has given rise, since more than 20 years, to heated debates between catastrophists and gradualists, even if the reality of the impact seems no more doubtful (discovery of Chicxulub impact crater, iridium anomaly, tektite glass, shocked quartz, spinels with high nickel concentrations). It is now the extent of the deleterious effects (regional or worldwide repercussion) which is debating. By referring to the obtained data in oceanic environment and, if necessary, in terrestrial environment where fossil record is too often incomplete, it can be noticed an important fact corresponding to a selective character of extinctions, the event of the C/T boundary killing off some taxa while others are preserved. This remark does not really correspond to the hypothesis of a sudden planetary catastrophe of large magnitude. Consequently, it seems to be reasonable to make arise intrinsic factors associated to the dynamics of the globe (volcanic eruptions, marine regression, fall of temperature) over a long period. The collapse with the Chicxulub asteroid should then come up, especially in Western North-America, as a "coup de grâce" in a weakened ecosystem.

Animals↗
PubMed1965

A technique and some results of meteorite microbiological investigations.

The possibility of the introduction of living organisms on earth with meteorites is a question of interest for scientists. It is quite possible that bacterial spores can remain in an anabiotic state for a long time, thus there is no reason to refuse the possibility of microorganisms present in meteorite. A special box was constructed in order to take samples from meteorites under sterile conditions because penetration of a soil microflora inside meteorites upon their fall on the earth surface is quite possible. The sterilized rock pieces were put into soil, samples were removed at intervals and subjected to microbiological assay. In all cases different soil microorganisms were found in the central parts of the samples tested. In another study a canal was drilled in the sterile rock and meteorite samples and a bacterial culture was poured into this canal, the sample being submerged into a liquid growth medium. Cell penetration through the rock took place and bacterial growth was found in the liquid growth medium. Therefore meteorites extracted from soil not at once after their fall are hardly suitable for microbiological assay.

Bacteria↗
PubMed1965

Carbon compounds in terrestrial samples and the Orgueil meteorite.

Meteorites contain extraterrestrial carbonaceous materials. The Alais, Orgueil, Tonk, and Ivuna meteorites resemble in their carbon, free sulfur, and non-metamorphosed mineral contents, densities, and general appearances certain organic-rich terrestrial sediments. Structural and isotopic determinations of carbon compounds in the Orgueil chondrite indicate that these compounds are primarily indigenous. Benzene extractable carbonaceous materials from Orgueil fragments and terrestrial sediments have similar chromatographic properties. Infrared and ultraviolet spectra show that they contain compounds of the same functional types. Mass spectrometric analyses of the alkanes from the Orgueil meteorite, sediments and organisms are statistically indistinguishable at the 95 per cent confidence level. Theoretical considerations and experimental data are presented which support the view that alkanes are well constituted to serve as indicators of former life. Complex alkanes in living things are structurally and isotopically analogous to hydrocarbons in petroleum. Pristane and phytane are constituents of a crude oil that is more than a billion years old. The structures and abundances of many alkanes in various sedimentary environments attest to the source and stability of these compounds. Based on the characteristics and distributions of organic substances on Earth, alkanes may provide the clearest insight into the origin of some carbonaceous substances in chondrites.

Alkanes↗
PubMed1963

Perspectives for the development of exobiology.

In the majority of the papers dealing with the status and prospects of the development of exobiology a theoretical analysis predominates. More attention should be given to the discussion of methods and experiments carried out at the present time or planned for the near future. In investigating life in the cosmos, we attach considerable interest to detection of compounds specific to living beings, in particular, organic compounds of phosphorus, porphyrins, amino nitrogen and others. In searching for microorganisms on other planets and in interplanetary space the greatest danger is that, as a result of errors in technique, the investigator will detect earthly microorganisms which have invaded and reproduced in the nutrient mediums used. Information on the vitality of microbes detected in the ground taken in the zone of eternal frigidity, in big pieces of rock salt, in meteorites, etc. confirms these apprehensions. Initially, search for heterotrophic bacteria should be carried out, then for phototrophic, denitrifying, sulfate-reducing, nitrogen-fixing microorganisms, as well as bacteria oxydizing sulfur, iron, methane and hydrogen. Instruments for detection of cosmobionts can be based on nephelometry, potentiometry, manometry and on the use of carbon labelled compounds and added to the nutrient medium. Investigations elucidating the influence of low and high temperatures, vacuum, and radiation on living cells are possible to carry out on earth and therefore are most accessible to exobiology. They give interesting results and in some degree make it possible to approach the study of the conditions to which life would be exposed in space. The sterilization of space ships is of paramount importance for further exobiological investigations. Under space conditions microbes will not completely perish on the space ship surface and, therefore, careful sterilization is necessary. The assertion that earth microbes, having reached the lunar surface, will not be able to develop is not free of objections. To carry out sterilization so that space ships will not contain dead bodies of microbes is impossible. Therefore, the wish expressed sometimes that "carcasses" of microbes should not be conveyed onto other planets is practically unrealizable.

Containment of Biohazards↗