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PubMed2005

Inference-based retrospective revaluation in human causal judgments requires knowledge of within-compound relationships.

In an allergist causal-judgment task, food compounds were followed by an allergic reaction (e.g., AB+), and then 1 cue (A) was revalued. Experiment 1, in which participants who were instructed that whatever was true about one element of a causal compound was also true of the other, showed a reverse of the standard retrospective revaluation effect. That is, ratings of B were higher when A was causal (A+) than when A was safe (A-). This effect was taken to reflect inferential reasoning, not an associative mechanism. In Experiment 2, within-compound associations were found to be necessary to produce this inference-based revaluation. Therefore, evidence that within-compound associations are necessary for retrospective revaluation is consistent with the inferential account of causal judgments.

Allergens↗

PubMed2003

Dynamics of metacognitive judgments: pre- and postretrieval mechanisms.

Two experiments examined the temporal course of pre- and postretrieval mechanisms using a new kind of dynamic metacognitive judgment. Experiment 1 presented participants with primed and unprimed triples of remote associates to a target word and required them to provide repeated metacognitive judgments, 4 times during a 12-s interval, about the likelihood that they would later recognize the target. Both familiarity with the words and the processing time were associated with changes in metacognitive evaluations. Experiment 2 placed pre- and postretrieval mechanisms in opposition by transforming an element of a previously primed question. For transformed questions this led to high initial ratings, which decreased over time, while for novel questions the ratings were initially lower and increased with time. The results are discussed in terms of pre- and postretrieval mechanisms interacting over time.

Aptitude↗

PubMed2004

Modeling the effects of repetitions, similarity, and normative word frequency on old-new recognition and judgments of frequency.

Judgments of frequency for targets (old items) and foils (similar; dissimilar) steadily increase as the number of times a target is studied increases, but discrimination of targets from similar foils does not steadily improve, a phenomenon termed registration without learning (D. L. Hintzman & T. Curran, 1995; D. L. Hintzman, T. Curran, & B. Oppy, 1992). The present experiment explores this phenomenon with words of differing normative word frequency. The retrieving-effectively-from-memory model (REM; R. M. Shifrrin & M. Steyvers, 1997, 1998) predicts that low-frequency words will be better recognized than high-frequency words because low-frequency words have more distinctive memory representations. A corollary of this assumption predicts that the typical recognition word-frequency effect will be disrupted when similar foils are tested. These predictions were confirmed, but to fit both the recognition and the judgment-of-frequency data, the authors used a "dual-process" extension of the REM model.

Attention↗

PubMed2005

Judgments of risk frequencies: tests of possible cognitive mechanisms.

How do people judge which of 2 risks claims more lives per year? The authors specified 4 candidate mechanisms and tested them against people's judgments in 3 risk environments. Two mechanisms, availability by recall and regressed frequency, conformed best to people's choices. The same mechanisms also accounted well for the mapping accuracy of estimates of absolute risk frequencies. Their nearly indistinguishable level of performance is remarkable given their different assumptions about the underlying cognitive processes and the fact that they give rise to different expectations regarding the accuracy of people's inferences. The authors discuss this seeming paradox, the lack of impact of financial incentives on judgmental accuracy, and the dominant interpretation of inaccurate inferences in terms of biased information processing.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Recognition is used as one cue among others in judgment and decision making.

Three experiments with paired comparisons were conducted to test the non-compensatory character of the recognition heuristic (D. G. Goldstein & G. Gigerenzer, 2002) in judgment and decision making. Recognition and knowledge about the recognized alternative were manipulated. In Experiment 1, participants were presented pairs of animal names where the task was to select the animal with the larger population. In Experiment 2, participants chose the safer 1 out of 2 airlines, and 3 knowledge cues were varied simultaneously. Recognition effects were partly compensated by task-relevant knowledge. The compensatory effects were additive. Decisions were slower when recognition and knowledge were incongruent. In Experiment 3, compensatory effects of knowledge and recognition were found for the city-size task which had originally been used to demonstrate the non-compensatory character of the recognition heuristic. These results suggest that recognition information is not used in an all-or-none fashion but is integrated with other types of knowledge in judgment and decision making.

Animals↗

PubMed2006

Global-scale location and distance estimates: common representations and strategies in absolute and relative judgments.

The authors examined whether absolute and relative judgments about global-scale locations and distances were generated from common representations. At the end of a 10-week class on the regional geography of the United States, participants estimated the latitudes of 16 North American cities and all possible pairwise distances between them. Although participants were relative experts, their latitude estimates revealed the presence of psychologically based regions with large gaps between them and a tendency to stretch North America southward toward the equator. The distance estimates revealed the same properties in the representation recovered via multidimensional scaling. Though the aggregated within- and between-regions distance estimates were fitted by Stevens's law (S. S. Stevens, 1957), this was an averaging artifact: The appropriateness of a power function to describe distance estimates depended on the regional membership of the cities. The authors conclude that plausible reasoning strategies, combined with regionalized representations and beliefs about the location of these relative to global landmarks, underlie global-scale latitude and distance judgments.

Cognition↗

PubMed2006

The interplay of memory and judgment processes in effects of aging on hindsight bias.

Hindsight bias is the phenomenon that after people are presented with the correct answer to a question, their judgment regarding their own past answer to this question is biased toward the correct answer. In three experiments, younger and older adults gave numerical responses to general-knowledge questions and later attempted to recall their responses. For some questions, the correct answer was provided during recall (Experiment 1) or before recall (Experiments 2 and 3). Multinomial model-based analyses show age differences in both recollection bias and reconstruction bias when the correct judgment was in working memory during the recall phase. The authors discuss implications for theories of cognitive aging and theories of hindsight bias.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2007

Reversing the truth effect: learning the interpretation of processing fluency in judgments of truth.

Repeated statements receive higher truth ratings than new statements. Given that repetition leads to greater experienced processing fluency, the author proposes that fluency is used in truth judgments according to its ecological validity. Thus, the truth effect occurs because people learn that fluency and truth tend to be positively correlated. Three experiments tested this notion. Experiment 1 replicated the truth effect by directly manipulating processing fluency; Experiment 2 reversed the effect by manipulating the correlation between fluency and truth in a learning phase. Experiment 3 generalized this reversal by showing a transfer of a negative correlation between perceptual fluency (due to color contrast) and truth to truth judgments when fluency is due to prior exposure (i.e., repetition).

Cues↗

PubMed2005

Relative numerousness judgment and summation in young and old Western lowland gorillas.

The relationship between age, relative numerousness judgment, and summation was investigated in 11 Western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). Experiments 1 and 2 evaluated the gorillas' ability to select the larger of 2 food quantities before and with training. The majority of gorillas did not reliably select the larger quantity in Experiment 1 until receiving training to do so in Experiment 2. Experiment 3 evaluated their ability to select the larger of 2 pairs of quantities. All gorillas selected the larger pair more often than chance, and the old were less accurate and slower than were the young. For most gorillas, performance in relative numerousness judgment with training and summation was comparable with previous reports in chimpanzees and orangutans.

Aging↗

PubMed2005

Measuring adolescent smoking expectancies by incorporating judgments about the expected time of occurrence of smoking outcomes.

French and English Canadian adolescents completed a smoking expectancy questionnaire and 2 measures of current smoking status. Multiple regression revealed that beliefs about the expected time of occurrence of smoking outcomes explained unique variance in current smoking after controlling for judgments about the probability and desirability of these outcomes. In addition, the relationship between the perceived probability of the general costs of smoking and current smoking was moderated by beliefs about the expected time of occurrence of these costs. There was no relationship between perceived probability of general costs and smoking for adolescents who expected the costs to occur far in the future, whereas there was a significant negative relationship between these 2 variables for adolescents who expected the costs to occur soon after smoking. The authors' results suggest that it may be possible to increase the concurrent validity of traditional smoking expectancy measures by incorporating expected-time-of-occurrence judgments.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2004

Gender differences in judgments of multiple emotions from facial expressions.

The authors tested gender differences in emotion judgments by utilizing a new judgment task (Studies 1 and 2) and presenting stimuli at the edge of conscious awareness (Study 2). Women were more accurate than men even under conditions of minimal stimulus information. Women's ratings were more variable across scales, and they rated correct target emotions higher than did men.

Adult↗

PubMed1975

Informational determinants of females' self-attributions and observers' judgments of them in an achievement situation.

A female (A) received feedback about both her own and a male or female other's (B's) performance on an achievement task, and then estimated the likelihood that she and B possessed each of several attributes related to competence, likeableness, and physical attractiveness. The situation was witnessed by a male or female observer who then judged B's attributes and predicted A's and B's ratings of one another. A formulation of social inference processes developed by Gollob was used to identify and compare the informational cues used by actors and observers in making these attributions. The contributions of these cues depended substantially on the type of attribute being inferred, the judge (A or the observer), and whether the judgment was made of A or of B. A's behavior (i.e., her performance on the achievement task) contributed less to her self-attributions than it did either to her predictions of how B would rate her or to observers' actual judgments of her attributes. A's self-attributions tended to be relatively more influenced by her experiences before participating in the experiment. Whereas A appeared to use B's performance as a comparative standard when judging her own competence and expected B to do likewise, observers did not use B's performance in this manner when judging A. Moreover, A did not use her own performance as a standard when judging attributes of B. The article discusses theoretical implications of these results for attribution and self-perception processes.

Achievement↗

PubMed2002

Judgments of idiom familiarity and transparency: a comparison of children and adolescents.

Idioms (e.g., go by the book, keep a straight face) are figurative expressions that frequently occur in the English language. Given the pervasiveness of these expressions, it is important that young people can understand their meanings. Developmental studies have shown that idioms that are higher in familiarity and transparency (e.g., blow off some steam) are generally easier for children and adolescents to understand than those that are less familiar and more opaque (e.g., pull up one's socks). In those studies, judgments of idiom familiarity and transparency were based on the perceptions of individuals who were older than the study participants. In the present study, 11-year-old children (n = 50) and 16-year-old adolescents (n = 50) were asked to judge the familiarity and transparency of a set of 20 idioms. Their comprehension of the same expressions was also examined. The results indicated that the children were less familiar with the idioms and had greater difficulty comprehending them than did the adolescents. However, the children's transparency judgments did not differ from those of the adolescents. For the children, the easiest idioms were also more familiar and transparent than the most difficult expressions. For the adolescents, the easiest idioms were more transparent than the most difficult ones, but the two types did not differ in familiarity. Suggestions are offered for conducting future studies of the development of idiom understanding in youth.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2000

Individual and consensus judgments of disfluency types in the speech of persons who stutter.

Previous research has suggested that the reliability with which judges identify individual disfluency types, such as repetitions or prolongations of speech sounds, may be very poor. The use of disfluency types judgments in research and clinical applications is also complicated by important differences among the several disfluency-based characterizations of stuttered speech. In an attempt to address these problems, this study arranged for 30 judges to identify all disfluency types that they perceived to be present in 5-s audiovisually recorded speech stimuli, each in an Individual task and then with a partner in a Consensus task. Intrapair agreement and interpair agreement for occurrences of disfluency types (from Consensus conditions) were significantly higher than intrajudge and interjudge agreement for occurrences (from Individual conditions). Despite being higher than individual values, however, intrapair and interpair agreement for occurrences both averaged less than 50%. Results also showed that disfluency types judgments, interpreted in terms of three common disfluency-based definitions of stuttering, were not strongly related to previous assessments of whether these speech tokens contained or did not contain stuttering. When combined with previously available data, the present findings suggest caution in the use of disfluency types to describe or define stuttered speech.

Adult↗

PubMed2000

Clinician judgments of functional outcomes: how bias and perceived accuracy affect rating.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the accuracy of clinician judgments of patient function, the susceptibility of judges to bias, and the relation between a judge's degree of belief in his/her accuracy of classification to observed accuracy when using the FIM instrument. PARTICIPANTS: Fifty rehabilitation professionals. SETTING: 3 urban medical centers. DESIGN: Four randomized experiments among subjects to examine the effect of potentially biasing information on FIM ratings of patient vignettes. Participants answered 60 true/false questions regarding patient function and FIM score and indicated confidence in the accuracy of their answers. INTERVENTIONS: Manipulation of patient information. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The standard FIM 7-point scale, observed proportion of correct responses to the 60 true/false questions, and a 6-category confidence scale for each of the 60 questions were used as dependent measures. RESULTS: FIM ratings assigned to others biased participants' FIM ratings of patient vignettes. Functional ability was overestimated when ratings in other domains were high and underestimated when they were low. Participants were overconfident in their ability to answer FIM questions accurately across all professional disciplines. CONCLUSION: Bias and poor judgment of level accuracy play a significant role in clinician ratings of patient functioning. Blind ratings and training in debiasing are potential solutions to the problem.

Activities of Daily Living↗

PubMed1995

Young children's judgments of relative mass of two objects in a head-on-collision event.

The purpose in this study was to investigate the ability of young children to judge the relative mass of two objects depicted on a CRT monitor as colliding head-on with each other, and to determine which feature of a collision event they depend on for their judgments. In the first experiment it was shown that half of the 4-year-olds and most of the 5-year-olds and 6-year-olds consistently judged the slower object to be heavier when the velocities of the two objects before collision were the same and those after collision were different. In the second experiment young children's judgements of relative mass in noncollision events in which two objects only moved in opposite directions at different speeds were examined. Results showed that half of the 5-year-olds and most of the 6-year-olds tended to assume consistently that the slower object was heavier. However, the 4-year-olds did not show any clear tendency. The third experiment was planned to examine young children's judgments of relative mass in different collision events in which only the precollision velocities of two colliding objects were different: half of the 6-year-old children judged the slower object to be heavier, but the rest of them and half of the 5-year-old children consistently gave the opposite responses. These were based upon the delay between the starts of motion of the two objects. The 4-year-olds did not show any tendency, as in experiment 2. The results indicate that young children can specify the kinetic information about relative mass from the kinematics of collision events when viewing an appropriate collision event, and that both the precollision phase and the postcollision phase contribute to the judgement of relative mass.

Accidents, Traffic↗

PubMed2006

Large sex difference in adolescents on a timed line judgment task: attentional contributors and task relationship to mathematics.

Visuospatial performance, assessed with the new, group-administered Judgment of Line Angle and Position test (JLAP-13), varied with sex and mathematical competence in a group of adolescents. The JLAP-13, a low-level perceptual task, was modeled after a neuropsychological task dependent upon functioning of the posterior region of the right hemisphere [Benton et al, 1994 Contributions to Neuropsychological Assessment: A Clinical Manual (New York: Oxford University Press)]. High-school boys (N = 52) performed better than girls (N = 62), with a large effect for sex (d = 1.11). Performance increased with mathematical competence, but the sex difference did not vary significantly across different levels of mathematics coursework. On the basis of earlier work, it was predicted that male, but not female, performance in line judgment would decline with disruptions to task geometry (page frame), and that the sex difference would disappear with disruptions to geometry. These predictions were supported by a number of univariate and sex-specific analyses, although an omnibus repeated-measures analysis did not detect the predicted interaction, most likely owing to limitations in power. Thus, there is partial support for the notion that attentional predispositions or strategies may contribute to visuospatial sex differences, with males more likely than females to attend to, and rely upon, internal or external representations of task geometry. Additional support for this hypothesis may require development of new measures or experimental manipulations with more powerful geometrical disruptions.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1977

Judgment of emotion in human face stimuli: an individual differences analysis.

Comparative judgments of the pleasure and anger dissimilarity between 80 face pairs were made by 100 male and female college students. The 80 face-pair stimuli were constructed by a systematic interchanging and deletion of four regions for anger and neutral face poses and for pleasure and neutral face poses. An individual differences analysis of the scaling data resulted in five like-perceiving subgroups of Ss. These subgroups were characterized on the basis of their differential use of face regions in making anger and pleasure dissimilarity judgments. The study illustrates the necessity of the individual differences approach to the study of cue utilization in the perception of emotion in human face stimuli.

Anger↗