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PubMed1999

Exercise: a unitary concept.

Nursing science provides the opportunity to frame one's vision of humans and health and create interventions that facilitate wellness. This article contributes to nursing science by reconceptualizing exercise as a unitary concept using Parse's process of concept inventing. Concept inventing is a way to uncover the uniqueness of particular concepts and articulate their essence within the simultaneity paradigm. It differs from traditional, linear processes that are derived from the totality paradigm. Through the process of concept inventing, exercise is described within Rogers's science of unitary human beings and conceptualized as the purposeful, rhythmic flow of human movement.

Exercise↗
PubMed2006

The emergence and diffusion of DNA microarray technology.

UNLABELLED: The network model of innovation widely adopted among researchers in the economics of science and technology posits relatively porous boundaries between firms and academic research programs and a bi-directional flow of inventions, personnel, and tacit knowledge between sites of university and industry innovation. Moreover, the model suggests that these bi-directional flows should be considered as mutual stimulation of research and invention in both industry and academe, operating as a positive feedback loop. One side of this bi-directional flow--namely; the flow of inventions into industry through the licensing of university-based technologies--has been well studied; but the reverse phenomenon of the stimulation of university research through the absorption of new directions emanating from industry has yet to be investigated in much detail. We discuss the role of federal funding of academic research in the microarray field, and the multiple pathways through which federally supported development of commercial microarray technologies have transformed core academic research fields. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: Our study confirms the picture put forward by several scholars that the open character of networked economies is what makes them truly innovative. In an open system innovations emerge from the network. The emergence and diffusion of microarray technologies we have traced here provides an excellent example of an open system of innovation in action. Whether they originated in a startup company environment that operated like a think-tank, such as Affymax, the research labs of a large firm, such as Agilent, or within a research university, the inventors we have followed drew heavily on knowledge resources from all parts of the network in bringing microarray platforms to light. Federal funding for high-tech startups and new industrial development was important at several phases in the early history of microarrays, and federal funding of academic researchers using microarrays was fundamental to transforming the research agendas of several fields within academe. The typical story told about the role of federal funding emphasizes the spillovers from federally funded academic research to industry. Our study shows that the knowledge spillovers worked both ways, with federal funding of non-university research providing the impetus for reshaping the research agendas of several academic fields.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2002

50 years of radiation research: medicine.

The advances brought about by research in radiation medicine over the past 50 years are presented. The era began with the atomic explosions in Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the establishment of the Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission to understand what damage was caused by exposure of a large population to radiation. A better understanding of the effects of whole-body exposure led to the development of whole-body radiation treatment techniques and to bone marrow transplantation in the treatment of leukemias. The field of diagnostic imaging was revolutionized by a series of inventions that included angiography, mammography, computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, magnetic resonance spectroscopy, and ultrasound imaging. The field of nuclear medicine came of age through new man-made radionuclides and the invention of scanning and imaging techniques including positron emission tomography. Radiotherapy, a minor sideline of radiology, developed into radiation oncology, an extremely important component of modern cancer therapy. The advances in clinical radiotherapy were made possible by discoveries and inventions in physics and engineering and by insights and discoveries in radiobiology. The result of the last 50 years of progress is a very powerful set of clinical tools.

Bone Marrow Transplantation↗
PubMed2005

Mecasermin rinfabate: insulin-like growth factor-I/insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3, mecaserimin rinfibate, rhIGF-I/rhIGFBP-3.

Insmed is developing mecasermin rinfabate, a recombinant complex of insulin-like growth factor-I (rhIGF-I) and binding protein-3 (rhIGFBP-3) [insulin-like growth factor-I/insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3, rhIGF-I/rhIGFBP-3, SomatoKine], for a number of metabolic and endocrine indications. In the human body, IGF-I circulates in the blood bound to a binding protein-3 (IGFBP-3), which regulates the delivery of IGF-I to target tissues, and particular proteases clip them apart in response to stresses and release IGF-I as needed. IGF-I, a naturally occurring hormone, is necessary for normal growth and metabolism. For the treatment of IGF-I deficiency, it is desirable to administer IGF-I bound to IGFBP-3 to maintain the normal equilibrium of these proteins in the blood. Mecasermin rinfabate (rhIGF-I/rhIGFBP-3) mimics the effects of the natural protein complex in the bloodstream and would augment the natural supply of these linked compounds. The most advanced indication in development of mecasermin rinfabate is the treatment of severe growth disorders due to growth hormone insensitivity syndrome (GHIS), also called Laron syndrome. GHIS is a genetic condition in which patients do not produce adequate quantities of IGF because of a failure to respond to the growth hormone signal. This results in a slower growth rate and short stature. Mecasermin rinfabate also has potential as replacement therapy for IGF-I, which may become depleted in indications such as major surgery, organ damage/failure, traumatic injury, cachexia and severe burn trauma. It also has potential for the treatment of osteoporosis. Mecasermin rinfabate was developed by Celtrix using its proprietary recombinant protein production technology. Subsequently, Celtrix was acquired by Insmed Pharmaceuticals on 1 June 2000. Insmed and Avecia of the UK have signed an agreement for manufacturing mecasermin rinfabate and its components, rhIGF-1 and rhIGFBP-3. CGMP clinical production of mecasermin rinfabate and its components will be carried out in Avecia's Advanced Biologics Centre, Billingham, UK, which manufactures recombinant-based medicines and vaccines at the capacity of up to 1000L. In April 2004, Insmed announced that it acquired a lease to operate the manufacturing facility formerly operated by Baxter for the commercial production of SomatoKine in Boulder, CO, USA. With the two manufacturing facilities for SomatoKine, Insmed plans to meet the development and commercial demands for the product over the next several years. In its 2003 Form-10K, Insmed announced plans to conduct comparative studies with the previously used drug substance and the new substance produced by Avecia. The comparative data will be included in the regulatory filing for mecasermin rinfabate. Mecasermin rinfabate was originally licensed to Welfide for Japan. On 1 October 2001, Welfide Corporation merged with Mitsubishi-Tokyo Pharmaceuticals to form Mitsubishi Pharma Corporation. The new company is a subsidiary of Mitsubishi Chemical. In October 2004, Insmed announced that Tzamal Pharma has been granted exclusive distribution and marketing rights for mecasermin rinfabate in certain Middle Eastern territories including Israel. Tzamal Pharma also acquired exclusive rights to Insmed's named patient programme for the agent in these territories. Tzamal Pharma intends to begin the appropriate registration activities for mecasermin rinfabate in the treatment of children with growth hormone-insensitivity syndrome. This pivotal, 12-month, multicentre, open-label trial in 30 children with GHIS was initiated in June 2003 and was designed to evaluate the safety and efficacy of the agent in prepubescent children with GHIS. The 6-month endpoint data analysis showed that mecasermin rinfabate given as a once-daily injection was safe and well tolerated. The agent demonstrated a significant increase in height velocity in children with GHIS similar to that observed by Pfizer in their pivotal study with twice-daily injections of rhIGF-I. The full results from the pivotal trial are expected in 2005. In April 2003 Insmed initiated a named patient programme in Europe that will make available mecasermin rinfabate for the treatment of GHIS-Laron syndrome. The treatment of patients was initiated in Scandinavia, with authorisation pending in several other European countries. Mecasermin rinfabate will be made available to those GHIS patients who, in the opinion of their doctor, may benefit from IGF-I therapy. At precommercial scale quantities, the drug will be available on a limited basis.A phase II dose-ranging study in children with GHIS was completed at Saint Bartholomew's and the Royal London School of Medicine, London, UK. A single dose of mecasermin rinfabate delivered the same amount of IGF-1 as two daily injections of unbound IGF-1. No adverse events were reported. Insmed has acquired an exclusive licence to Pharmacia's regulatory filings concerning yeast-derived insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1). These filings were used by Pharmacia to receive marketing approvals in several European countries and also in the IND application with the US FDA. Insmed believes that this licence will facilitate the development of mecasermin rinfabate for the treatment of children with GHIS. In January 2003, Insmed announced positive results from a double-blind, placebo-controlled, dose-ranging study of mecasermin rinfabate in adolescent patients with type 1 diabetes receiving insulin therapy. The study was conducted at the University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK, under supervision of Prof. D. Dunger. The researchers from The Robarts Research Institute and the University of Western Ontario, Canada (leading investigator T.L. Delovitch, the Sheldon H. Weinstein scientist in Diabetes at the University of Western Ontario) have found that mecasermin rinfabate complex was significantly more effective than IGF-1 in reducing the severity of insulitis, beta cell destruction and delaying the onset of type 1 diabetes. The study was supported by grants from Canadian Institutes of Health and the Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation. Insmed plans to initiate large-scale phase II clinical studies in this indication. At the BIO 2004 Annual International Convention (BIO-2004) in June 2004, Insmed announced that it has received a grant from the US National Institutes of Health (NIH)/Muscular Dystrophy Association (MDA) worth USD $6.5 million to investigate the efficacy of mecasermin rinfabate for the treatment of myotonic dystrophy. It has also been granted orphan drug status for the treatment of GHIS-Laron syndrome in the US and Europe. In December 2003, Insmed announced that mecasermin rinfabate was designated orphan drug status by the FDA for the treatment of extreme insulin resistance. This provides Insmed with 7 years of market exclusivity following approval of mecasermin rinfabate for this indication. Insmed has received orphan drug designation for mecasermin rinfabate in the treatment of extreme insulin resistance in Europe (October 2004). In November 2004, Insmed was granted the European patent EP1183042 entitled "Methods for Treating Diabetes". This patent corresponds with the US patent US 6,040,292 also entitled "Methods for Treating Diabetes". Both patents cover type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus and insulin resistant diabetes including type A insulin resistance (the least severe form of extreme insulin resistance syndromes). In January 2004, Insmed obtained a non-exclusive licence to the patents for use of IGF-I for the treatment of extreme or severe insulin-resistant diabetes from Fujisawa Pharmaceutical. Insmed will have worldwide rights in territories (excluding Japan) with existing valid patent claims including the US and Europe. Insmed holds 28 US issued or allowed patents for the composition, production, antibodies and methods of use of mecasermin rinfabate. These US patents expire at various times between the years 2010 and 2019. Insmed through their lawyers filed its defense and counterclaim to the alleged patent infringement brought by Tercica against Insmed in the London High Court of Justice. Insmed asserted that it did not infringe any valid patent claims as none of the claims of the patent were patentable because the subject matter was not new. Insmed also stated that the patent did not involve an inventive step, did not have capability of industrial application and had no clear description of the invention so that invention can be performed by the person skilled in the art. Insmed is seeking revocation of the patent on these grounds.

Drugs, Investigational↗
PubMed1992

Fleischner Lecture. Imaging the respiratory system in the first few years after discovery of the X-ray: contributions of Francis H. Williams, M.D.

Imaging of the respiratory system developed with exceptional rapidity in North America during the spring of 1896, after Roentgen's discovery of X-rays in November 1895, largely because of the efforts of a unique physicians, Francis H. Williams. With great zeal, this pioneer used fluoroscopy for early detection of tuberculosis and other life-threatening chest disorders. By the summer of 1896, he had accumulated more than 100 volumes containing tracings of clinical chest fluoroscopy. As a result of his extensive clinical experience, his dedication to patients' welfare, and his sense of scientific inquiry, several inventions and many landmark clinical observations were made in the first few years after the discovery of the X-ray. These included (1) the invention of a "densitometer" for standardized measurements of relative X-ray attenuation of the lung, (2) the invention of a "seehear" device to correlate auscultative findings and fluoroscopic observations, (3) the recognition that fluoroscopy was more accurate than percussion for estimating mediastinal displacement, (4) the discovery that clinically occult tuberculosis and congestive heart failure could be detected with fluoroscopy, (5) the documentation that unilateral chest disease caused decreased ipsilateral ventilatory compliance and increased contralateral ventilation, (6) the identification of the classical imaging characteristics of tuberculosis, pneumonia, pneumothorax, tension pneumothorax, pleural effusion, hydropneumothorax, emphysema, congestive heart failure, and air trapping. In April 1896, Dr. Williams described the "air bronchogram" in a radiograph of a patient with pneumonia.

History, 19th Century↗
PubMed1993

Neurosurgeon as innovator: William V. Cone (1897-1959).

Neurosurgeons are well known for being productive researchers and innovators. Few, however, have possessed the prolific ingenuity of William Cone. In 1934, he and William Penfield were cofounders of the Montreal Neurological Institute where, until 1959, he filled the twin roles of neurosurgeon-in-chief and neuropathologist. Because he did not find writing easy, many of his technical inventions and refinements remained unpublished. His numerous innovations included the extensive use of twist-drill technique for biopsy, drainage for subdural hematoma and cerebral abscess, and ventriculography. In the mid-1940's, he developed power tools driven by nitrogen that led to the modern, universally used air-driven tool systems. He had a special interest in the treatment of spinal dysfunction, for which he invented the Cone-Barton skull-traction tongs along with the Cone spinal operating table. He also devised operative procedures for vertebral fracture-dislocation and craniospinal anomalies. For the maintenance of muscle tone in the paralyzed bladder, he constructed a tidal drainage system. He introduced and popularized ventriculoperitoneal shunting techniques and carried out some of the earliest experimental trails to treat brain infections with sulphonamide and antibiotic drugs. He designed his own set of surgical suction devices, bone rongeurs, and a personal suction "air-conditioning" system for each surgeon. He had a keen early interest in intracranial tumors, and also demonstrated on monkeys how subdural mass lesions caused pupillary dilation and mesial temporal lobe damage due to cerebral compression. His work for the military during World War II on effects of altitude on brain pressure remained classified for many years. The first clipping and excision of an intracranial aneurysm is attributed to Cone. Although Penfield was known as "the Chief," Cone was referred to as "the Boss." His fervent dedication to provide total care to his patients was expressed in round-the-clock vigils; he did not separate "nursing" from "surgical" care. Ultimately, Cone's driving passion for perfection led in part to his tragic death. His accomplishments, inventions, and his example as teacher and physician have become part of neurosurgery's collective legacy.

Canada↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Bioethics, biotechnology products and humans: Europe between the skilled Theseus and the Labyrinth-Minotaur's syndrome.

Following the approval on May 1998 of the European Union Common position no. 19/98 regarding the legal protection of biotechnological inventions, the debate on bioethical aspects of biotechnologies is increased. The European Union document clearly protects the patentability of inventions (that concerns more than a particular plant or animal variety or a single procedure if they are of industrial interest), but not the finding or discovery of that is in the nature, e.g. a gene. Some safeguards (the dignity and integrity of the person and of the human embryo, the plant diversity, etc.) and exclusions from patentability (plant and animal varieties, processes for the production of plants or animals, the human body at any stage of growth, cloning of human beings, modifications of germ line, use of human embryos for industrial or commercial purposes as well as the inventions whose publication or exploitation would offend against public policy or morality, according to the Article 53a of the European Patenting Convention) are also indicated. Ethical issues discussed include the nature of human life and its protection, the safeguard of plant-animal biological diversity, the safeguard of human dignity and nature, whereas on several aspects (e. g. limits of the use of genetic material, xenotransplantation, etc.) the Parliament Assembly of the Council of Europe has requested a discussion or a moratorium (April, 1999). In this case an evaluation on the basis of the ethical beneficial principles should be performed and society should decide whether to master technologies and emulate the positive action of the hero Theseus against the Labyrinth-Minotaur syndrome or to renounce or "misuse" technologies like Daedalus and Icarus, who met a tragic end.

Bioethics↗
PubMed1999

Invisible inventors. A historical overview of creative midwives and nurses.

This historical overview documents women's inventions for providing nursing care dating from 1608 to 1928. The word invention is broadly defined and includes ideas that created therapeutic activities, caregiving environments, and specific devices for care. It focuses on the creative contributions of early outstanding midwives and other practicing nurses around the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Sources include illustrations of patented items, practical hints published in early issues of the American Journal of Nursing (AJN), published translations of original documents from Europe, original historical research on women in Europe and America, and records from the U.S. Government Patent Office. The role of nurses in creating and developing tools and methods for providing nursing care has gone unrecognized. It is important to clarify the record of women's and nurses' inventiveness.

Creativity↗
PubMed1996

[A brief history of studies on anti-tumor remedies in China].

This paper gives a general introduction to the studies on the formulation and invention of anti-tumor remedies from 1950s-1980s. Beginning from 50s, antitumor antibiotics were investigated. New alkylicompoun and antibiotics were found in the 60s, while more new natural compounds were found in the 70s. Researches were proceeded in the 80s based on the former achievements. Through the process of about 30 years, nearly 80 new species were produced, many anti-tumor pharmaceutical corporations established, and a contigent of high level research workers was formed. However, there still exist a rather large gap between the urgent clinical needs for clinical chemotherapeutics and the actual status. Based on some 30 years of experience in China, the following points were summarized, i.e., shifting from merely imitation to invention, developing the spirit of massive cooperation, investigating the thesaurus of TCM, developing China's plant resources, and traditional Chinese preventive idea, so that the stress point for research be laid on the invention of preventive anti-tumor remedies.

China↗
PubMed2000

C. Edmund Kells (1856-1928).

Dr. C. Edmund Kells, a dentist practicing in the deep South became a pioneer in the profession of dentistry and medicine with his numerous inventions and publications. His most significant invention was the surgical aspirator for dental and medical surgery, still utilized today. Kells was also one of the first dentists to hire a female dental assistant and the first to expose a dental radiograph in the United States. Although controversial at times, he fought for his convictions and beliefs in the advancement of dentistry. Kell's theories on conservative cavity preparation and 'saving' pulpless teeth are scientifically validated almost one century later. Because of Kells persistence, dental professionals today continue to benefit from his inventions and procedures.

Dental Cavity Preparation↗
PubMed2003

Sir Nicholas Harold Ridley. He changed the world, so that we might better see it.

Cataract surgery with intraocular lens (IOL) implantation has become the most common and most successful of all operations in medicine. Sir Harold Ridley's first cataract extraction with implantation of an IOL marked the beginning of a major change in the practice of ophthalmology. Millions of patients worldwide have benefited from Sir Ridley's invention, and are likely to continue to derive benefit from this device. However, the development of the IOL was not without its share of ups and downs. Sir Harold Ridley, the inventor of IOL, died at the age of 94, on 25 May 2001, and ophthalmology lost one of its greatest and most influential practitioners. We are happy that he lived to enjoy the fruits of his labour--to see the amazing improvements and the expansive growth that evolved in the cataract-IOL technique, from early and unsatisfactory operations in previous decades, to the superb results attainable today. The invention of the IOL has not been just the addition of one new form of treatment, but rather, Sir Harold's tiny disc-shaped sliver of plastic has changed the world so that our patients may better see it. This article presents a brief biographical sketch of Sir Harold and lists his major inventions and contributions to ophthalmology.

Cataract Extraction↗
PubMed2002

A glovebox with three levels of containment and clean room facilities for growing and handling biological material at physiologically correct gas compositions and with optimal quality assessment for tissue-engineering, ex vivo expansion, manipulation and gene therapy.

Traditional two levels of containment provide enclosure and underpressure in order to avoid hazardous material to flow towards e.g. a crewmember and thereby cause severe harm. The present-day demands for laboratory safety have revealed a paradox: In the laboratory overpressure is needed to prevent contamination of biological material and under pressure is needed to prevent the pollution of the environment. A new type of combined workbench/incubator has been constructed to meet future regulatory demands for handling and growing human biological cellular material at safe constant physiological conditions: A so-called three levels of containment glovebox/workbench. This new invention avoids the hazards of prior technology. It sets new standards for proper handling of biological materials and will meet the coming safety demands from the growing field of tissue engineering and ex vivo biotechnology. The invention is computer controlled, has a build in cleaning facility for assuring a particle free and aseptic working facility. We now have invented a solution to the above paradox concerning laboratory safety that seems to fulfil the need for safe biological experiments in microgravity. This concept has already been applied into ground-based research and is expected in a few years also to be applied similarly in the ISS environment. Furthermore, handling biological material mimicking in vivo conditions ex vivo requires precise and stabile monitoring and regulation of the isotherm and isobar conditions. Handling stem cells requires in addition low to very low oxygen tension to mimic the stem cells natural habitats. Besides that, the ex vivo gaseous atmosphere and temperature surrounding the cells has to be of same correct composition and temperature as found in the body in order to mimic in vivo situations in such way, that scientifically correct, reproducible and comparable results can be achieved. This fact is strengthened by forthcoming regulations as being prepared by several international regulatory bodies. The new concept will find its use in microgravity biotechnology and will set new standards on ground and in microgravity in the field of basic research, tissue-engineering, production of patient specific cells and tissue, embryo-genesis and in vitro fertilisation, ex vivo expansion of blood progenitor cells, gene therapy etc.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2004

Developing competency in research management, entrepreneurship, and technology transfer: a workshop course.

In July 1999, the National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (NIDCR) convened a Blue Ribbon Panel that recommended management skills, entrepreneurship, and technology transfer should be included in dental education. The panel's recommendations were implemented in an NIDCR-funded pilot project, "Workshop Course to Promote and Develop Dental Products and Technologies." The workshop consisted of lectures presented by seven faculty members recruited from academia, government, and business, along with an analysis of a professor's invention and the barriers encountered in transforming the invention into a product. Evaluation consisted of a pre- and post-workshop survey. The workshop was presented to twenty-two participants on November 8 and 9, 2003 at the University of Connecticut School of Dental Medicine and, to refine the presentation further, will be tested at five additional dental schools (University of Pennsylvania, Harvard University, New York University, Nova Southeastern University, and University of Southern California). The results indicated that the workshop's courses would be helpful to the commercialization of inventions. In addition, dental students with experience in basic research expressed an interest in research of projects of use in dental practice. These findings suggest that pursuing research and an academic career might be more appealing if their research was product-oriented.

Congresses as Topic↗
PubMed2003

Patent first, ask questions later: morality and biotechnology in patent law.

This Article explores the U.S. "patent first, ask questions later" approach to determining what subject matter should receive patent protection. Under this approach, the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO or the Agency) issues patents on "anything under the sun made by man," and to the extent a patent's subject matter is sufficiently controversial, Congress acts retrospectively in assessing whether patents should issue on such interventions. This practice has important ramifications for morally controversial biotechnology patents specifically, and for American society generally. For many years a judicially created "moral utility" doctrine served as a type of gatekeeper of patent subject matter eligibility. The doctrine allowed both the USTPO and courts to deny patents on morally controversial subject matter under the fiction that such inventions were not "useful." The gate, however, is currently untended. A combination of the demise of the moral utility doctrine, along with expansive judicial interpretations of the scope of patent-eligible subject matter, has resulted in virtually no basis on which the USTPO or courts can deny patent protection to morally controversial, but otherwise patentable, subject matter. This is so despite position statements by the Agency to the contrary. Biotechnology is an area in which many morally controversial inventions are generated. Congress has been in react-mode following the issuance of a stream of morally controversial biotech patents, including patents on transgenic animals, surgical methods, and methods of cloning humans. With no statutory limits on patent eligibility, and with myriad concerns complicating congressional action following a patent's issuance, it is not Congress, the representative of the people, determining patent eligibility. Instead, it is patent applicants, scientific inventors, who are deciding matters of high public policy through the contents of the applications they file with the USTPO. This Article explores how the United States has come to be in this position, exposes latent problems with the "patent first" approach, and considers the benefits and disadvantages of the "ask questions first, patents later" approaches employed by some other countries. The Article concludes that granting patents on morally controversial biotech subject matter and then asking whether such inventions should be patentable is bad policy for the United States and its patent system, and posits workable, proactive ways for Congress to successfully guard the patent-eligibility gate.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Patent protection for stem cell procedures under the law of the European Union.

Stem cell research shows an immense diagnostic and therapeutic potential. The procedures based on human stem cells seem to allow new medical treatments for serious diseases like Parkinson's or Alzheimer's disease, leukaemia or diabetes. However, as no company or inventor would take the risk of immense investments without an adequate legal protection of the possible benefits arising out of their work, intellectual property law plays a pivotal role for the further development of stem cell techniques. Although international patent law knows protection of inventions using biological substances and living matter for about 160 years, patents on stem cells, DNA and other parts of the human body raise specific objections. Nevertheless, from a strictly legal angle, there are no barriers to patents on stem cell procedures. In particular, Art. 6 of the "Directive 98/44/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of the European Union of July 6, 1998 on the legal protection of biotechnological inventions" - which qualifies inventions as unpatentable where their commercial exploitation would be contrary to ordre public or morality - does not hinder patent protection for stem cell research.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

[On evaluating functional state of human operator].

Analysis of patents for inventions evaluating functional state proved decreased research and invention activities in Russian Federation since 1990 till 2004 and lower innovation prospects of inventions.

Aviation↗
PubMed1987

A patent law primer for clinical chemists and other scientists.

Patenting and commercialization by academic scientists, despite potential drawbacks, are on balance highly desirable if technology is to be transferred from the laboratory to the public use, and if the scientist and his institution are to be encouraged to participate in this transfer. If that premise is accepted, there is much that academic institutions can do to foster utilization of their biotechnological discoveries. Such institutions should have a patent policy that is known to all and that includes a professional patent administrator and clear administrative procedures for carrying out such policy. Scientists should be trained to recognize and protect their inventions and to appropriately disclose their inventions to their patent officers. Ideally, scientists should know the rudiments of the patent statutes of their own country and should be aware of what constitutes trade secrets. Scientists should be given guidance in working with patent attorneys in the preparation and prosecution of patent applications. Finally, given human nature, institutions should see to it that their scientists are provided with a suitable environment in which to invent, and appropriate incentives to do so.

Chemistry, Clinical↗
PubMed1985

Functional comparative histology. 5. Communication: History of histology.

The present author gives a survey on the development of microscopy by centuries: 16th Invention of the simple microscope--at the end of the century the compound microscope was invented. 17th HOOKE's microscope was the leading of this century--binocular microscope--introduction of screw fine adjustment. 18th The first microscope in America came to Yale in 1734. CHARLES SPENCER started to manufacture microscopes at the continent in 1847. 19th Establishment of precondition for electron microscopy. ZEISS introduced apochromatic optics. The Royal Microscopical Society was established in 1858. The American Microscopical Society in 1878, The New York Microscopical Society in 1877. 20th 1906 invention of the ultraviolet microscope, 1911 of the fluorescence microscope, 1931 of the electron microscope, the first American in 1938, 1932 the centrifuge microscope, 1932 the phase contrast microscope. The first American phase contrast microscope in 1944, 1942 phosphorescence microscope, in the 1950th the interference and x-ray microscopes.

Histological Techniques↗