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PubMed2004

Social learning about predators: a review and prospectus.

In comparison with social learning about food, social learning about predators has received little attention. Yet such research is of potential interest to students of animal cognition and conservation biologists. I summarize evidence for social learning about predators by fish, birds, eutherian mammals, and marsupials. I consider the proposal that this phenomenon is a case of S-S classical conditioning and suggest that evolution may have modified some of the properties of learning to accommodate for the requirements of learning socially about danger. I discuss some between-species differences in the properties of socially acquired predator avoidance and suggest that learning may be faster and more robust in species in which alarm behavior reliably predicts high predatory threat. Finally, I highlight how studies of socially acquired predator avoidance can inform the design of prerelease antipredator training programs for endangered species.

Adaptation, Psychological↗

PubMed1999

Parental input and weight concerns among elementary school children.

OBJECTIVE: This study examined the relative contributions of mother's and father's direct comments about child's weight and modeling of weight concerns through their own behavior on child's body esteem, weight-related concerns, and weight loss attempts. METHOD: Parents, 131 mothers and 89 fathers, of fourth and fifth grade boys and girls completed a brief survey which included measures of their own dieting attempts, concerns about their own shape, complaints about their own shape, and beliefs about calorie-restrictive dieting as well as the frequency of their comments to their child about the child's weight. Children were surveyed using the Body Esteem Scale as well as questions about their weight-related concerns and weight loss attempts. RESULTS: Direct parental comments, especially by the mother, seemed to be more powerful influences than parental modeling of weight and shape concerns, although parental modeling did affect the child's beliefs and behaviors. Girls appeared to be more affected than did boys. DISCUSSION: Parental comments and modeling do appear to affect elementary school children's weight and shape-related attitudes and behaviors. Such parental behavior may be an appropriate target in prevention programs.

Adult↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Pretending and believing: issues in the theory of ToMM.

Commonsense notions of psychological causality emerge early and spontaneously in the child. What implications does this have for our understanding of the mind/brain and its development? In the light of available evidence, the child's "theory of mind" is plausibly the result of the growth and functioning of a specialized mechanism (ToMM) that produces domain-specific learning. The failure of early spontaneous development of "theory of mind" in childhood autism can be understood in terms of an impairment in the growth and functioning of this mechanism. ToMM constructs agent-centered descriptions of situations or "metarepresentations". Agent-centered descriptions place agents in relation to information. By relating behavior to the attitudes agents take to the truth of propositions, ToMM makes possible a commonsense causal interpretation of agents' behavior as the result of circumstances that are imaginary rather than physical. Two early attitude concepts, pretends and believes, are discussed in the light of some current findings.

Child, Preschool↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Using behavior modeling for supervisory development in health care settings.

Behavior modeling is one training method found effective in helping health care managers deal with their day-to-day management problems. This article defines and explains the five basic steps of behavior modeling training, suggests the workshop format as its most effective mode of instruction, and presents examples of successful use of the method.

Administrative Personnel↗

PubMed1975

Effect of television violence on children and youth.

One hundred forty-six articles in behavioral science journals, representing 50 studies involving 10,000 children and adolescents from every conceivable background, all showed that violence viewing produces increased aggressive behavior in the young and that immediate remedial action in terms of television programming is warranted. Four major issues are covered: effects on learning, emotional effects, the question of catharsis, and effects on aggressive behavior. The research findings regarding each of these issues are summarized, as well as the controversial 1972 Surgeon General's report, Television and Social Behavior. The time is long past due for a major, organized cry of protest from the medical profession in relation to what, in political terms, I consider a national scandal.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1997

Means to the goal of remembering: developmental changes in awareness of strategy use--performance relations.

We examined awareness of the causal relation between strategy use and recall performance among preschoolers, first graders, and third graders, and the relation of this awareness to children's study behavior and recall. In session 1, children were presented with two study-recall trials; the second trial included questions concerning the child's study behavior. During Session 2, children viewed videotapes in which a model's strategy use (labeling versus no labeling) and recall level (high versus low) were varied orthogonally. Children judged whether the model tried to remember, rated how hard the model tried to remember, and described how they knew. Children who gave mentalistic explanations for their study behaviors in Session 1 recalled more than those giving nonmentalistic explanations. In Session 2, age-related differences were observed in awareness of the relation between strategy use and performance level. Further, children who demonstrated understanding of strategy use-performance relations in Session 2 were more likely to give mentalistic explanations for their own study behaviors in Session 1. The results further delineate the metamemorial development that contributes to effective strategy utilization.

Attention↗

PubMed1998

Tobacco and alcohol use in top-grossing American films.

This study assessed the prevalence of tobacco and alcohol use in top-grossing American films from 1985 to 1995. The top ten money-making films for 1985 to 1995 were viewed to identify the prevalence of alcohol and tobacco use overall and by lead characters. While the use of tobacco and alcohol was stable across the study period, use of these substances was common. Most films (98%) had references that supported tobacco use and 96% had references that supported alcohol use. Discouraging the use of these substances was uncommon. Only one third of films had any references that discouraged the use of tobacco or alcohol (38% and 37%, respectively). At least one lead character used tobacco or alcohol in 46% and 79% of the films, respectively. The hazards of smoking and drinking are not reflected in the behaviors of film characters who are potential role models for youth facing the decision to smoke or drink.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1993

Spontaneous vocal mimicry and production by bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus): evidence for vocal learning.

Two female bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) and their 2 male offspring were presented with an underwater keyboard to observe how the dolphins would use such a system to obtain specific objects and activities. When a dolphin pressed visual forms on the keyboard, whistles were generated underwater, and the dolphin was given a specific object or activity. Both vocal and nonvocal behaviors were recorded. Only the males used the keyboard. In the 1st year spontaneous vocal mimicry and productive use of facsimiles of the computer-generated whistles were recorded. In the 2nd year productive use increased significantly over mimicry, and apparent combinations of discreet whistle facsimiles in behaviorally appropriate contexts were observed. The patterns of vocal mimicry and production suggest a new model for analyzing dolphin vocalizations and vocal development with respect to signal structure and organization.

Animals↗

PubMed1986

Teaching a functional leisure skill cluster to rehabilitation clients: the art of macrame.

Disabled people often do not use leisure time productively. Past research has focused on teaching specific recreational activities isolated from related skills that would provide subjects a functional independent living repertoire. In the present study disabled subjects were taught the art of macrame. Additionally, they role-played related shopping skills such as buying materials, engaging in appropriate social-interpersonal skills, making monetary transactions, and securing their own transportation to and from the store. Subjects were taught six basic macrame knots using an instructional manual, series of error-correction procedures, and social reinforcement. After mastering those basic knots they independently used the instructional materials to make three complete macrame projects without direct instruction on the projects themselves. Subjects also demonstrated skill maintenance and generalization by making a novel project after independently engaging in all relevant shopping behavior. Two varieties of the multiple baseline design were employed. The importance of teaching a leisure skill cluster and adapting instructional materials were emphasized.

Activities of Daily Living↗

PubMed2000

Intergenerational transmission of gastrointestinal illness behavior.

OBJECTIVE: Previous research, based on retrospective reporting, suggests that parental reinforcement and modeling may be important mechanisms in the development of gastrointestinal illness behavior in children and adults. The aim of this study was to determine the relationship between the illness behavior of parents, in the form of health care use for irritable bowel symptoms, and the illness behavior of their children, without relying on retrospective recall. METHODS: A comparison of two matched groups was made. Groups included 631 children of parents who were diagnosed with irritable bowel syndrome during 1 calendar yr and 646 children of parents matched by parental age, gender, and number of children in the family who did not receive an IBS diagnosis during the same 1 yr. Health care use and costs over a 3-yr calendar period for all children and their parents collected from the health care database of a large health maintenance organization were evaluated. RESULTS: Case children had significantly more ambulatory care visits for all causes (mean 12.26 vs. 9.81, p = 0.0001) and more ambulatory visits for gastrointestinal symptoms (0.35 vs. 0.18, p = 0.0001). Outpatient health care costs over the 3-yr period were also significantly higher for case than control children ($1979 vs. $1546, p = 0.0001). Controlling for the total number of ambulatory visits of the parents, excluding gastrointestinal visits, did not alter the findings. Gender of the IBS parent was not related to children's gastrointestinal visits. CONCLUSION: This study extends previous research by showing that specific types of illness behavior may be learned through modeling.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1983

A cluster of adolescent suicide attempts: is suicide contagious?

Adolescent self-destructive behavior has increased during recent decades. Suicide now ranks third as a cause of death among older teenagers. Although recent studies have highlighted multiple risk factors for this behavior, little attention has been paid to the role of contagion as a possible cause for suicide attempts. Within a 6-month period, a small suburban community experienced two adolescent deaths from suicide followed by five attempts and an admission for suicidal ideation, within 7 weeks subsequent to the second fatality. The six patients were among a group of students from the same high school who not only related to each other during the school day but who also visited each other at the time of hospitalization for suicidal behavior. The possible role of suicidal behavior precipitating other self-destructive attempts within a peer group is explored. The development of strategies for dealing with issues of depression and suicide within a high-school environment may be needed.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1990

Mechanisms governing empowerment effects: a self-efficacy analysis.

This experiment tested the hypotheses that perceived coping and cognitive control self-efficacy govern the effects of personal empowerment over physical threats. Women participated in a mastery modeling program in which they mastered the physical skills to defend themselves successfully against unarmed sexual assailants. Multifaceted measures of theoretically relevant variables were administered within a staggered intragroup control design to test the immediate and long-term effects of the empowerment program and the mechanisms through which it produced its effects. Mastery modeling enhanced perceived coping and cognitive control efficacy, decreased perceived vulnerability to assault, and reduced the incidence of intrusive negative thinking and anxiety arousal. These changes were accompanied by increased freedom of action and decreased avoidant behavior. Path analyses of causal structures revealed a dual path of regulation of behavior by perceived coping self-efficacy, one mediated through perceived vulnerability and risk discernment and the other through perceived cognitive control self-efficacy and intrusive negative thinking.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1996

Long-term impact of exposure to suicide: a three-year controlled follow-up.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the long-term impact of exposure to suicide on the friends of adolescent suicide victims. METHOD: One hundred sixty-six friends of suicide victims and unexposed community controls were followed up at periodic intervals up to 3 years after the suicide, using the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children, Epidemiologic and Present Episode versions, to assess current and incident psychopathology. RESULTS: The incidence of suicide attempts was comparable between groups over the entire follow-up period, despite higher rates of baseline and incident psychopathology in the exposed group. An increased incidence of depression and anxiety was found in friends that was most marked in the first 6 months of follow-up. An increased incidence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in those exposed was seen in the early as well as the later periods of follow-up. Those exposed youths who knew the suicide plans of the suicide victim were at the greatest risk for incident depression and PTSD over the entire course of follow-up. CONCLUSION: Exposure to suicide does not result in an increased risk of suicidal behavior among friends and acquaintances, but it has a relatively long impact in terms of increased incidence of depression, anxiety, and PTSD.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1989

A path analysis of an adolescent drinking behavior model derived from problem behavior theory.

The interrelationships between composite variables comprised of demographics, socialization, personality, perceived environment, conventional and problem behaviors, and their combined mediational influences on adolescent drinking behavior are examined. Students randomly sampled from four suburban, metropolitan-area high schools (N = 499) were administered the 250-question Survey of Underage Drinking Styles. All 12 composite variables, derived from the survey, were arranged in a causal model and submitted to a confirmatory path analysis. Data were analyzed by multiple regression procedures. According to the present model, a powerful pathway through to drinking may begin with family interaction problems, which may lead to a reduction in the adolescent's social coping skills. A reduction in the adolescent's coping skills may lead to a compensatory belief that alcohol improves mental and physical functions and an increased affiliation with and acceptance of the peer group's attitude and behavior toward consuming alcohol as a replacement coping skill. The adolescent's drinking may then increase as a result of the affiliative need to conform to peer group pressure.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2006

Eyes always attract attention but gaze orienting is task-dependent: evidence from eye movement monitoring.

Eyes and gaze are central to social cognition but whether they attract attention differently depending on the task is unknown. Here, the shift in attention towards the eye region and gaze direction of a perceived face was studied in two tasks by monitoring eye movements. The same face stimuli in front- or 3/4-view, with direct or averted gaze, were used in both tasks. In the Gaze task, subjects performed an explicit gaze direction judgment (gaze straight or averted) while in the Head task they performed a head orientation judgment (front- or 3/4-view). Gaze processing was evident in both tasks as shown by longer RTs and lower accuracy when head and gaze directions did not match. In both tasks the eye region was the most attended area but the amount of viewing was task-dependent. Most importantly, approximately 90% of the initial saccades landed in the eye region in the Gaze task but only approximately 50% of them did so in the Head task. These saccades were made in the direction signaled by gaze in the Gaze task but in the direction signaled by head orientation in the Head task. Altogether, these task-modulated behaviors argue against a purely exogenous and automatic orienting-to-gaze mechanism. Based on patient work and neuroimaging studies of gaze processing, we suggest that this task-dependent orienting behavior is rather endogenous and subtended by cortical areas amongst which frontal regions play a central role. We discuss the implications of this finding for clinical populations.

Adult↗

PubMed1991

Same-day surgery preparation: reduction of pediatric patient arousal and distress through participant modeling.

Twenty-six children (mean age = 5.5 years) were exposed to one of three surgery preparatory conditions: participant modeling alone (n = 9), participant modeling with mother (n = 8), and standard procedure control (n = 9). Children exposed to the modeling slide-tape without their mothers had significant reductions in physiological arousal after the slide-tape presentation, unlike children viewing the tape with their mothers and children exposed to the control condition. Both participant modeling groups exhibited significantly fewer distressful behaviors during recovery (postsurgery) than did control group children. Results are discussed with respect to previous medical preparation research. Implications of these findings concerning clinical application and future research are addressed.

Ambulatory Surgical Procedures↗

PubMed1980

The use of self-modeling to improve the swimming performance of spina bifida children.

The use of edited videotape replay (which showed only "positive" behaviors) to improve the water skills of three spina bifida children, aged 5 to 10 years was examined. A multiple baseline across subjects design was used, and behavioral changes were observed to occur in close association with intervention. One child was given successive reapplications of videotaped self-modeling with continuing improvements. It appears that a useful practical technique has been developed.

Child↗

PubMed1977

The effect of interviewer bias on mental illness questionnaire responses.

The purpose of this study was to investigate how interviewer behavior affects information obtained from a respondent during an interview. The five factors of interviewer behavior that were studied were social reinforcement, interviewer disclosure, verbal modeling, interviewer dress, and seating arrangement. The dependent variable was the number of symptoms reported on the 22-item Mental Health Inventory. A total of 128 male and female adult patients under treatment for mental illness were interviewed under procedures using all combinations of the five factors. Control of patient sex, age, ethnicity, and education was effected through the use of a balanced design. The results demonstrated that the behavior of the interviewer influenced the respondent's report of psychiatric symptoms. The largest number of psychiatric symptoms were reported when the interviewer gave social reinforcement while wearing a lab coat and sitting across a desk from the respondent.

Adult↗