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PubMed2006

Effect of breed and sperm concentration on the changes in structural, functional and motility parameters of ram-lamb spermatozoa during storage at 4 degrees C.

The objectives of this study were (1) to determine the changes in structural, functional and motility parameters of ram-lamb semen stored at two different concentrations at 4 degrees C for 8 days in egg-yolk based extender and (2) to determine the effect of breed of ram-lambs on the changes in structural, functional and motility parameters of ram-lamb semen from different breeds stored at two different concentrations at 4 degrees C for 8 days in egg-yolk based extender. Two different concentrations suitable for laparoscopic and cervical insemination were employed in this experiment. A total of 14 ram-lambs (Polled Dorset-5, Suffolk-5, Katahdin-4) with satisfactory breeding potential were selected. Semen samples were collected by electro-ejaculation. Semen samples were extended to 50 and 200 million sperm per ml with a commercial egg yolk based extender (Triladyl, Minitube of America, Verona, WI, USA) at room temperature and were stored at 4 degrees C. The sperm DNA fragmentation index (DFI), percentages of high mitochondrial membrane potential (hMMP) and plasma membrane integrity (PMI) were assessed using flow cytometry as part of structural and functional parameters on Days 0, 1, 4, 6, and 8. A computer assisted sperm analyser (HTM-IVOS, Version 10.8, Hamilton Thorne Research, Beverly, MA, USA) was used to assess the sperm motility parameters on Days 0, 1, 4, 6, and 8. PROC MIXED procedure was used to determine the effect of days of storage, concentration and breed. The concentration and days of storage significantly affected the sperm structural, functional and motility parameters (P<0.0001). Significant concentration x days of storage interaction was found for all structural and functional parameters. There was a significant concentration x days of storage interaction for average path velocity, curvilinear velocity, straightness and linearity. Overall changes in the sperm structural, functional and sperm motility parameters over the storage period were less dramatic in the 200 x 10(6) ml(-1) concentration when compared to 50 x 10(6) ml(-1) concentration. The hMMP and total progressive motility were influenced by breed. In conclusion, the quality of structural, functional and motility parameters declined as days of storage were increased and the magnitude of changes in the parameters was less dramatic at the higher concentration.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Cross-sectional geometrical properties of distal radius and ulna in large, medium and toy breed dogs.

Fractures of the distal radius and the ulna are the third most common fractures in dogs. Toy and miniature breeds have a propensity to develop antebrachial fractures after falling or jumping. Most affect the distal third of both bones involving between 15% and 37% of the radial length. Larger dogs, instead, typically sustain hyperextension injuries to the carpus. The causative mechanisms for this fracture prevalence in toy dogs are unknown. Breed-related changes in bone geometry and/or mineral density have been suggested as possible etiologic factors. In a multifactorial study, the main etiological factors potentially responsible for determining susceptibility to fractures in toy breeds are considered. The aim of this first study is to evaluate the geometric bone features in different dog sizes. The cortical bone cross-sectional properties along the length of the right radius and the ulna of 28 dogs from three different size categories have been quantified by computerized tomographic scanning. Geometrical cross-sectional parameters were measured and normalized to radial length to allow intergroup comparisons. Discriminant analysis was used to classify the observations into different groups. Through statistical analysis of the normalized values, significant differences in cross-sectional properties of different bone sizes were found. The results suggest that, when proportionally loaded, the antibrachii of toy breed dogs are more susceptible to fracture than those of large breed dogs due to morphological differences.

Anatomy, Cross-Sectional↗
PubMed2006

Influence of breed and age on morphometry and depth of inseminating catheter penetration in the ewe cervix: a postmortem study.

A detailed examination of the cervical canal in the ewe was carried out. This analysis could be used to design new catheters for artificial insemination (AI) to achieve deeper cervical penetration and therefore better fertility results. Three hundred and sixty-five cervices from four sheep breeds (Churra, Assaf, Merino, Castellana) obtained postmortem were used. Cervix morphometry and depth of cervical penetration using two types of catheters were determined. A conventional straight catheter for ovine artificial insemination (IMV), and a bent catheter, ending in a stainless steel needle, 9 cm in length and with an 8 mm tip bent 45 degrees , were used. The results showed that the morphometry of the cervix depends on breed and age of the ewe. The cervices of Churra breed were shorter and narrower, and had a higher number of folds than those of other breeds. Postmortem cervical penetration was deeper when the cervices were longer and wider, and with fewer folds (Merino and Castellana breeds). In ageing ewes, the cervix tended to become longer and wider, with loose folds. This decreased structural complexity and significantly improved cervical penetration. The bent catheter allowed significantly greater cervical penetration than the straight IMV one.

Age Factors↗
PubMed2006

Utilization of frozen-thawed epididymal ram semen to preserve genetic diversity in Scrapie susceptible sheep breeds.

The European Union has introduced transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE) resistance breeding programmes for several sheep breeds to cope with the genetic susceptibility to Scrapie infections. Due to the different allele frequencies among breeds, strong selection for ARR alleles is associated with a loss of genetic diversity in small populations and in larger populations with unfavourable ARR allele frequencies. To ensure maintenance of genetic diversity, an adhoc cryopreservation programme was initiated employing epididymal sperm from 109 rams representing 16 different breeds within one breeding season. Epididymal semen was chosen for this adhoc programme because time consuming training of rams for ejaculated semen collection via an artificial vagina was not possible. Prior to freezing, average sperm motility was 79.7% and acrosome integrity was 93.7%. After freezing, these levels were decreased to 60.5 and 72.8%, respectively. An insemination trial using frozen-thawed epididymal semen resulted in a lambing rate of 87.5%. Results show that this semen preservation method is robust and efficient and associated with high fertility. It may also be useful for other animal species.

Acrosome↗
PubMed2006

Breeding-context-dependent relationships between song and cFOS labeling within social behavior brain regions in male European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris).

Male European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) sing throughout the year, but the social factors that motivate singing behavior differ depending upon the context in which song is produced. In a non-breeding context (when testosterone concentrations are low), starlings form large, mixed-sex flocks and song is involved in flock cohesion and perhaps maintenance of social hierarchies. In contrast, in a breeding context (when testosterone concentrations are high), male song plays a direct role in mate attraction. How the nervous system ensures that song production occurs in an appropriate context in response to appropriate stimuli is not well understood. The song control system regulates song production, learning, and, to some extent, perception; however, these nuclei do not appear to regulate the social context in which song is produced. A network of steroid hormone sensitive nuclei of the basal forebrain and midbrain regulates social behavior. The present study used the immediate early gene cFOS to explore possible involvement of these regions in context-dependent song production. Numbers of cFOS-labeled cells in the medial bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, anterior hypothalamus, and ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus related positively only to song produced in a breeding context. In contrast, numbers of cFOS-labeled cells in three zones of the lateral septum related positively only to song produced in a non-breeding context. Taken together, these data suggest differential regulation of male starling song by social behavior nuclei depending upon the breeding context in which it is produced.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Analysis of cow factors influencing conception rates after two timed breeding protocols.

The objective of this study was to determine cow factors that influence conception rates after timed artificial insemination (TAI) on a commercial dairy farm. In Trial 1, 197 cows were synchronized by an administration of 25 mg of dinoprost between Days 48 and 54 post partum and again 14 days later. Cows were inseminated 66 and 90 hours after the second treatment. In Trial 2, 186 cows were treated with an Ovsynch protocol consisting of an administration of 0.02 mg of buserelin between Days 62 and 68 post partum, a treatment with 0.75 mg of tiaprost 7 days later and a second treatment with buserelin 48 h later. Cows were bred 16 to 20 hours after the last treatment. Cows with abnormal vaginal discharge at the time of insemination were excluded from AI. Lactation number, milk yield, fat and protein content of milk, signs of endometritis at an examination 14 to 20 days post partum and month of breeding were included as potential factors influencing conception on TAI. Conception rates after timed breeding were 32.0% and 30.6% in Trials 1 and 2, respectively. Logistic regression revealed that neither milk production parameters nor endometritis at post partum examination influenced conception rates in either of the two timed breeding protocols. Only parity showed an effect (P=0.012) in Trial 2. Primiparous cows were more likely to conceive after timed breeding than older cows (43.5 vs. 23.1%). An effect of parity, however, was not observed in Trial 1. It can be concluded that neither milk production nor endometritis at an examination 14 to 20 days post partum influence conception rates after TAI if cows with abnormal vulval discharge at the designated time of AI are excluded from breeding.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Breeding soundness evaluation of extensively managed bulls in Costa Rica.

This paper describes the results of single breeding soundness evaluations (BSE) in 898 Bos indicus, Bos taurus and B. indicus x B. taurus bulls, 1 to 12 yr old, extensively reared in different climatic regions of Costa Rica and representing approximately 2% of the total breeding bull population. Thirty-three percent (n = 296) of the bulls were classified as unsound for breeding owing to clinical problems (9.1%, n = 82), low scrotal circumference (SC) being the most common finding, followed by unsatisfactory sperm morphology (23.9%, n = 214). The prevalence of bulls unsound for breeding was lowest in Bos indicus (29%, P < 0.01), intermediate in B. taurus (41%), and highest in B. indicus x B. taurus (48%). The percentages of abnormal sperm heads, acrosomes and midpieces tended to be higher in the ejaculates of bulls with softer testicular consistency (P < 0.001), a long scrotum (P < 0.01) or a low SC (P < 0.05), and such bulls were more often classified as being unsound for breeding (P < 0.05). Frequencies of sperm abnormalities were higher in bulls < 2 yr of age than in older males (P < 0.01) and were highest in B. indicus x B. taurus bulls (P < 0.001). The results confirm differences between species in their adaptability to a tropical environment and support earlier evidence of an association between SC, testicular consistency and scrotal length clinical parameters, and testicular function in bulls.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Retrospective analysis of trends and production factors associated with sow mortality on swine-breeding farms in USA.

Of the 825 pig farms in USA that mailed in their electronic file containing production records, 604 farms were used to observe breeding-female mortality risk and related factors (herd size, lactation length, parity and season). Multiple regression was used to determine factors associated with annual mortality risk. Analyses of variance were used for comparisons of mortality risks among parity and season groups. Average annual mortality risks during the 1997 period was 5.68%. Average breeding-female inventories and average lactation length on USA farms were 733 and 18.3 days, respectively. Higher annual breeding-female mortality risk was associated with larger herd size, greater parity at farrowing and shorter lactation length (P<0.02). For example, as herd size increases by 500 females, mortality risk increases by 0.44%. Older parity was associated with higher mortality risks. Summer season was also associated with higher mortality risk. Using five-years' records on 270 farms, annual mortality risk in 1997 was higher than those of 1993 and 1994, while average breeding-female inventory increased and lactation length decreased. It is recommended that producers, especially in large herds, pay more attention to breeding females.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed2003

Open status of pig-breeding farms is associated with slightly higher seroprevalence of F18+ Escherichia coli in northern Belgium.

F18+ enterotoxigenic and verotoxigenic Escherichia coli (E. coli) are widespread and induce post-weaning diarrhoea and oedema disease, respectively. No commercial vaccine exists. Therefore, the F18 herd seroprevalence of 178 randomly selected pig-breeding farms in northern Belgium was evaluated by determining F18-specific IgG antibody titres in pooled sera of sows per breeding farm. This survey reported the first data concerning F18 herd seroprevalence and showed that F18+ E. coli seroprevalence was common in northern Belgium. Significantly more open pig-breeding farms were F18 seropositive (96.4%) compared to closed (88.8%). Furthermore, no clear association was determined between the F18 herd seroprevalence and the number of sows per breeding farm (rsp = 0.19), or with the number of fattening pigs per breeding farm (rsp = 0.17).

Animal Husbandry↗
PubMed1998

Management factors associated with swine breeding-herd productivity in the United States.

A database containing 24 key production measurements was created by abstracting data files of 673 U.S. farms which participated in the PigCHAMP data-share program in 1995. Summary statistics for breeding-herd performance data were presented for the Cornbelt and the South or Eastern regions. Eight models were built to assess the association between production system, operation management factors and productivity outcomes. Lactation length, percentage of multiple matings, parity of culled sows, percent gilts in the breeding-female inventory, and female culling rate were the management factors identified as having important associations with productivity outcomes. For example, shorter lactation length, higher percentage of multiple matings, and lower culling rate were associated with more pigs weaned per mated female per year. In addition, a lower percentage of gilts in the breeding-female inventory and a higher percentage of multiple matings were associated with fewer average non-productive female days. We recommend that producers change their management systems to decrease lactation length, the percentage of gilts in the breeding-female inventory, and female culling rate, and increase percentage of multiple matings in order to improve breeding-herd productivity on swine farms.

Animal Husbandry↗
PubMed2000

Serum progesterone profiles of zebu cattle (Bos indicus) in relationship to conception and repeat breeding after artificial insemination.

Sixty-four zebu cows, comprised mainly of Bunaji cattle aged between 3 and 7 years old, were involved in an intensive artificial insemination programme. The study was conducted during the breeding period (May-October), and cows were inseminated with freshly prepared Friesian semen when they stood to be mounted by the vasectomised bull or herdmates. Fertility was measured by serum progesterone (P(4)) concentrations and pregnancy diagnosis by rectal examination post-insemination. From the records of oestrus detection and P(4) profiles of cattle following breeding, 39 oestrous cycle lengths were classified into short, normal and long cycles. The mean duration for short, normal and long oestrous cycles were 15.6+/-2.0, 21.5+/-1.5 and 29.5+/-2.5 days, respectively. Mean inter-oestrus intervals between the treatment groups were not different. The percentage frequency distribution was 48.7% for normal oestrous cycles. The short oestrous cycle lengths of 11-17 days were observed in 12.8% of the cases, while 38.5% of the cases of oestrus returns had long luteal phases with oestrous cycle lengths of 26-32 days. Out of the 64 cows, 48.4% conceived to the first breeding while 18.8% conceived to the second breeding. Five and nine cows became acyclic after the first and second breeding, respectively, constituting 22. 0%. Cows that displayed irregular oestrous cycles (repeat breeders) constituted 10.9%. Average number of services per conception was 1.3. Serum P(4) is of practical value in monitoring ovarian activity in cattle and in the identification of acyclic and repeat breeder cows. Repeat breeder cows could be investigated by a combination of radioimmunoassay and clinical examination of the ovaries and reproductive tract. In cattle management, it is economical and profitable to diagnose pregnancy early after insemination so that cows which fail to conceive may be rebred.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Reindeer bull introduction affects the onset of the breeding season.

Reindeer are seasonally polyestrus, short day breeders, with estrous cycles of approximately 20 days in length. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of reindeer bull exposure on the onset of the reindeer cow breeding season and to investigate whether cows with calving experience responded differently than cows with no previous reproductive experience. During year 1, blood samples were collected weekly beginning 14 July and continuing until 15 September (n = 8) or 30 September (n = 8) in order to determine the onset of the breeding season, based on ovarian function, with no bull present. Plasma was stored frozen for later assay of progesterone (P(4)) following the conclusion of sample collection. Eight randomly selected cows were allowed to breed with a bull during year 1. The mean onset of ovarian activity in the first year was 15 September (range: 8-29 September). The bull was removed from cows more than 2 months prior to the start of the experimental period during year 2 and housed at a separate facility approximately 2 km distant. Blood samples were collected during year 2 from 14 cows 3x weekly beginning on 11 August (day 1) and continuing until 29 September (day 50) and plasma was stored frozen for later assay of P(4) following the conclusion of sample collection. On day 6, cows were divided into two groups such that group 1 (early bull exposure; EBE), consisted of four cows that had calved the previous spring and four cows that had no reproductive experience (n = 8). Group 2 (late bull exposure; LBE), consisted of three cows that had calved the previous spring and three cows that had no reproductive experience (n = 6). EBE experienced bull introduction on day 13, 23 days earlier than the average onset of ovarian activity during year 1. LBE experienced bull introduction on day 46, 10 days later than the average onset of ovarian activity during year 1. Progesterone concentrations were analyzed by ANOVA procedures for repeated measures. Bull presence was not requisite for the onset of ovarian activity during either year. Previous reproductive status had no effect on the onset of ovarian activity within EBE (P = 0.61) or within LBE (P = 0.92). Time of bull introduction had a significant effect on the onset of ovarian activity when EBE was compared to LBE (P<0.001). The first sustained increase in mean P(4) concentration above 1 ng/ml occurred on day 25 in EBE reindeer and day 41 in LBE reindeer. EBE reindeer initiated ovarian activity 12 days after bull introduction while LBE reindeer initiated ovarian activity 5 days before bull introduction. All cows penned with the bull conceived during both breeding seasons, demonstrated by production of live calves during the subsequent spring. Cows bred during year 1 all calved within a 9 day-period. During year 2, EBE displayed a more synchronous calving period compared to LBE (P<0.05). Results indicate that bull management affects the onset of the breeding season in reindeer cows, regardless of previous reproductive experience.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Differences among breeds and manifestation of heterosis in AI boar sperm output.

A total of 271,547 records of semen collections were utilized to appraise sperm characteristics of 3319 boars belonging to eight breeds: Czech Large White (CLW), Czech Landrace (CLA), Prestice Black-Pied (PBP), Czech Meat Pig (CM), Hampshire (HA), Duroc (DC), Pietrain (PN), Large White (LW), and various crosses of these breeds. The data was collected over 8 years (1990-1997) from insemination stations for boars in the Czech Republic. The assessment of sperm output was based on semen volume, number of total spermatozoa and number of viable spermatozoa. A linear model was used for statistical analysis included fixed effects of breed or crossbred combinations, boar within breed or crossbred combinations, year-season, and linear and quadratic regression on age of boars at collection and on interval between collections. The average semen volume of boars ranged from 161 to 349 ml, number of total spermatozoa from 81x10(9) to 119x10(9) and number of viable spermatozoa from 60x10(9) to 86x10(9). The lowest values were detected in DC while the highest were observed in LW. In general, sperm output significantly differed across breeds and their crossbreeds. The highest heterosis effect for semen volume was 30.6% (HA x PN), for number of total spermatozoa 18.2% (HA x PN) and 10.4% for number of viable spermatozoa (CLA x DC). Sperm output varied with season, including high values in autumn and winter and low ones in spring and summer.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Relationship among H-FABP gene polymorphism, intramuscular fat content, and adipocyte lipid droplet content in main pig breeds with different genotypes in western China.

H-FABP(Heart fatty acid-binding protein), a member of FABP family, plays an essential role in long-chain fatty acid uptake and metabolic homeostasis. Its role in pig intramuscular fat content remains poorly understood, especially in local pig breeds in western China. In this study, the genetic variations of 5'-upstream region and the second intron in porcine H-FABP gene were investigated by PCR-RFLP in 256 pigs including Duroc, Large White, Landrace, Neijiang, Rongchang, Bamei pig, Hanjiang Black, Hanzhong White, and the wild ones. The effect of H-FABP gene on the IMF content was analyzed by the least square method. Lipid droplet morphology and content in adipocytes cultured from pigs with different H-FABP genotypes, were studied by oil red O staining and a triglyceride assay kit. Results showed a Hinf I -RFLP in these eight pig breeds and wild pigs, among which Large white, Bamei pig, Hanjiang Black, Hanzhong White, and wild pigs presented with low polymorphism while the other breeds had intermediate polymorphism. There was no Hae III or Msp I -RFLPs in the four Chinese local pig breeds tested, but Duroc, Landrace, Large White, Hanzhong White and wild pig had polymorphism. Landrace, Large White and wild pigs had low levels of Hae III- and Msp I -RFLP, whereas others had intermediate polymorphism. H-FABP genotypes significantly affected the IMF content (P<0.05). The IMF content ordered by H-FABP genotypes were HH>Hh>hh, DD<Dd<dd, and AA<Aa<aa. The genetic effect values were 3.89, 3.42, 3.17, 2.27, 2.49, 2.91, 2.28, 2.70, and 2.95, respectively. Fat deposition in adipocytes was stronger in the HH, dd and aa genotypes than in others. The results suggest that porcine meat quality may be improved by increasing the frequency of genotype aa-dd-HH in pig breeds.

Adipocytes↗
PubMed1996

Sire breed of calf influences peripartum endocrine profiles and postpartum anestrus in Brahman cows.

The literature indicates that sire breed of calf influences beef calf performance. However, there is little information concerning sire breed of calf effects on reproduction in beef cows. In this experiment, Angus (A), Brahman (B), or Tuli (T) bulls were bred to 136 Brahman (B) cows to examine sire breed of calf influence on peripartum hormone profiles and the length of postpartum anestrus. Cows were bled from 7 d prepartum to 28 d postpartum to determine peripartum hormone concentrations. Cows carrying AB calves had greater (P < 0.05) prepartum estradiol-17 beta concentrations than did cows carrying BB and TB calves. Prepartum and postpartum progesterone concentrations did not differ between cows with AB, BB, and TB calves. Cows with TB calves had lower (P < 0.01) 13,14-dihydro-15-keto-prostaglandin F2 alpha (PGFM) concentrations than did cows with AB and BB calves during the early postpartum period. Adjusting for birth weight removed the sire breed of calf effect on postpartum PGFM concentrations, but not prepartum estradiol-17 beta. Postpartum anestrus was shorter (P < 0.05) for cows nursing BB calves (84 +/- 6 d) than for cows nursing AB (101 +/- 6 d) or TB calves (110 +/- 7 d). Adjustment for estradiol or PGFM concentrations did not reduce sire breed of calf effects on the length of postpartum anestrus. Further work is heeded to determine how calf genotype may modulate the postpartum reproductive function of the dam.

Anestrus↗
PubMed1992

Evaluation of the stallion for breeding soundness.

The breeding soundness evaluation of a stallion is a thorough investigation of a stallion's libido, mating ability, and semen quality. The evaluation should include historical data about the medical aspects of the horse's performance and breeding career, observations and breeding behavior characteristics, collection and evaluation of semen, tests to determine freedom from infectious or contagious disease, and production of foals free of genetic defects. This information should allow the examiner to anticipate the impact of the stallion on the reproductive efficiency of a group of mares. The breeding soundness evaluation should also assist farm management in optimizing stallion, mare, veterinary, and management influences on total herd breeding performance.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Genetic diversity of Yunnan local pig breeds inferred from blood protein electrophoresis.

Protein electrophoresis was used to examine the blood protein polymorphism in Yunnan local pig breeds, i.e., the Saba pig, Dahe pig, and Diannan small-ear pig breeds. Of 38 genetic loci surveyed, 9 were found to be polymorphic. The percentage of polymorphic loci (P) varies from 0.1875 to 0.2121, and the mean individual heterozygosity (H) varies from 0.0712 to 0.1027 in three pig breeds. The results indicate that blood protein polymorphism in Yunnan pig breeds is high. Yunnan local pig breeds have a wealth of genetic diversity at the level of blood proteins.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Polymorphisms in blood proteins of Bos indicus and Bos taurus cattle breeds of Cameroon and Nigeria, and description of new albumin variants.

Polymorphisms in the five blood protein loci albumin (ALB), carbonic anhydrase (CA II), vitamin D binding protein (GC), haemoglobin (HBB), and transferrin (TF) were investigated in 520 individuals from 12 cattle populations (Bos indicus and Bos taurus) in Cameroon and Nigeria by isoelectric focusing with carrier ampholytes in ultrathin polyacrylamide gels (PAG-IEF) and by linear gradient polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE). While all loci in nine populations were polymorphic with up to six alleles at the ALB and TF loci: the Namchi population showed monomorphism at the CA II locus and Muturu at the ALB, CA II, and HBB loci. There was a clear distinction between Bos indicus and Bos taurus breeds at the ALB locus with ALBB predominating in indicine and ALBA predominating in taurtine breeds. CA IIS, GCA, and HBBA were the most commonly occurring alleles in all populations. Two variants not described before were demonstrated by PAG-IEF at the ALB locus and named ALBJ and ALBK. Mean effective number of alleles as measure of intrabreed diversity was higher in zebu populations (2.040-2.288) as compared to taurine breeds (1.349-1.836). Significant deviations from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium occurred in some populations at the HBB and TF loci. More haplotypes of ALB/GC occurred in the zebu than taurine breeds. ALBAGCA predominated in the taurine populations and ALBBGCA in the indicine populations. Influence of zebu genes on the Namchi and N'Dama taurine breeds was detected at the ALB, CA II, HBB, and TF loci, and estimated at 61.5% and 5.7%, respectively. The high resolution of PAG-IEF in screening for polymorphisms within diversity studies was demonstrated.

Albumins↗