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PubMed2004

Molecular phylogeny and biogeography of the Malagasy and South Asian cichlids (Teleostei: Perciformes: Cichlidae).

Phylogenetic relationships of the Malagasy and South Asian cichlids are investigated using nucleotide characters from two mitochondrial genes, a 544 bp region of the large ribosomal subunit (16S) and a 649 bp region of cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI). This is the first molecular analysis to include a thorough taxonomic sampling of all Malagasy-South Asian genera, and a near complete taxonomic inventory of all valid species. Parsimony analysis of the combined data set (1193 aligned nucleotide positions) results in a single, completely resolved phylogenetic hypothesis. Results of this analysis, and that based on more comprehensive taxonomic sampling across Cichlidae for 16S alone (554 bp for 73 taxa), indicate that the Malagasy cichlids are paraphyletic, whereas the Malagasy and South Asian cichlids comprise a monophyletic group. In both analyses, the African and Neotropical assemblages are monophyletic. The Malagasy-South Asian cichlids are not recovered as plesiomorphic members of the family in either analysis. Two major clades are recovered within the Malagasy-South Asian assemblage and given subfamilial rank, Etroplinae, comprising Paretroplus (Madagascar) and Etroplus (southern India and Sri Lanka), and Ptychochrominae, comprising Ptychochromis, Ptychochromoides, and Oxylapia, all endemic Malagasy genera. Placement of the endemic Malagasy genus Paratilapia is equivocal depending on the gene fragment(s) analyzed. Inter- and intrageneric relationships within Ptychochrominae and Etroplinae are presented and discussed. The hypothesis of relationships for Cichlidae based on nucleotide characters from 16S alone, arguably the most comprehensive and broadly sampled data set across all major geographic assemblages to date, is congruent with prevailing hypotheses regarding the sequence of Gondwanan fragmentation and a vicariance scenario to explain the current distribution of cichlid fishes.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Cancer of mouth, pharynx and nasopharynx in Asian and Chinese immigrants resident in Thames regions.

Studies on migrants can generate important clues on the etiology of cancer. The purpose of the present study was to determine the relationship between ethnic origin and the incidence of oral and pharyngeal cancers among residents of the Thames regions in southern England. Records from the Thames Cancer Registry during the period 1986-91 were examined and south Asians and Chinese ethnic immigrants flagged using their place of birth and names. Computation of relative incidence among head and neck cancers (n = 7222) showed that oral cancer was significantly higher among Asians (95/232 = 40.9%) and nasopharyngeal cancer among Chinese (45/67 = 67.2%). Some differences in the intra-oral site of cancer and ethnic origin were noted. The ethnic migrants were significantly younger (Asians 51.6 +/- 34.8 years, Chinese 47.6 +/- 14.8 years) compared to the rest of the population (64.8 +/- 15.6 years) at the time of cancer diagnosis (p = 0.0) but no significant differences were found for the stage of presentation. The mean survival period for a cancer of the head and neck was 2.2 years and significant differences in cumulative rates of survival were noted among the three groups studied (p = 0.003). A strong correlation was noted between the incidence of oral cancer and local authorities with a high percentage of Asian residents. The south Asian and Chinese ethnic minorities constitute important high risk groups for oral and nasopharyngeal cancer, for whom targeted prevention is indicated.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Ethnicity, desirable responding, and self-reports of abuse: a comparison of European- and Asian-ancestry undergraduates.

One thousand fifty-two (582 non-Asian, 470 Asian) university students were assessed regarding levels of physical abuse, emotional abuse, sexual abuse, neglect, and socially desirable responding. Differences between Asian-ancestry and European-ancestry students in self-reported incidence and expression of abuse were evaluated, as was gender and the relation between self-reported abuse and socially desirable responding. Asian-ancestry men and women reported higher levels of physical abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect than did their Euro-ancestry counterparts, and Euro-ancestry women reported a higher incidence of sexual abuse than did Asian-ancestry women. Across ethnicity, men reported higher levels of physical abuse and neglect but lower levels of sexual abuse than did women. Socially desirable responding was not related to measures of abuse. Findings are discussed in terms of cultural influences on child-rearing and disciplinary practices.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

Alcohol, tobacco and paan use and understanding of oral cancer risk among Asian males in Leicester.

OBJECTIVES: To determine use of alcohol, tobacco and paan among males from the various Asian communities in Leicester; and assess their knowledge and attitudes towards oral cancer risk factors and prevention. Also, to determine any differences regarding habits and attitudes between first and second generation Asians. DESIGN: Volunteers completed a confidential, bilingual questionnaire regarding alcohol, tobacco and paan use and also knowledge about oral cancer risk factors and preventive measures. SETTING: Participants were recruited from sources that included GPs' surgeries, sixth form colleges and places of worship. SUBJECTS: Asian males, i.e. those of Indian, Pakistani, Bangladeshi or Sri Lankan origin; over the age of 16 years and resident in Leicester. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Quantitative figures were obtained from the questionnaires as to the frequency of alcohol, tobacco and paan use and responses regarding oral cancer knowledge, risk factors and preventive measures. RESULTS: The principal Asian community groups in Leicester were Hindu, Sikh, Muslim and Jain. Significant differences were found in males from these groups with regards to habits and oral cancer awareness. Muslim males use tobacco and paan more than the other groups but avoid alcohol. Sikh males drink more alcohol (especially spirits) than the other groups but their use of tobacco and paan is low. Habits of Hindu and Jain males are variable. However, approximately 10% of both 1st and 2nd generation Hindu males combine all three habits of alcohol, tobacco and paan; and are thus considered to be at high risk of developing oral cancer. Seven percent of 1st generation Hindu males were found to chew paans containing tobacco which are strongly associated with oral cancer. More 2nd generation Jains drank alcohol than the 1st generation, and a greater proportion of Hindu, Sikh and Jain 2nd generation males drink spirits than their older counterparts. Knowledge of oral cancer risk factors and preventive measures were variable, the lowest level of knowledge being among the 1st generation Sikh group. Few volunteers realised the risk of alcohol drinking in the aetiology of oral cancer. CONCLUSION: The 'Asian' community in Leicester is not homogeneous, but consists of distinct community groups; each with their own cultural beliefs, habits and attitudes. Knowledge of these differences can be used to provide appropriate health education programmes suitably targeted to reduce the use of the known risk factors for oral cancer.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1989

Ethnic indicators of dental health for young Asian schoolchildren resident in areas of multiple deprivation.

The aim of the study was to explore the use of two social indicators in a dental caries epidemiological study of 5-year-old Asian schoolchildren in an area of multiple deprivation. The two indicators selected were religious background and the mother's ability to speak English. Six hundred and forty-three 5-year-old schoolchildren from three schools were examined; the mean dmft was 2.84 (SD 3.63). Children were classified into three groups on broad ethnic/facial characteristics, and the mean dmft for Asians (3.64) differed statistically significantly from those of both Whites (1.83) and Afro-Caribbeans (1.87). When the Asian population was divided into four groups, to explore the effects of religion and the mother's ability to speak English, a statistically significant interaction was observed between religion and language for mean dmft and dental cleanliness. The Asian non-Muslim children whose mothers were English speaking (ES) compared well with the White and Afro-Caribbean group for mean dmft, percentage caries-free and oral cleanliness. When these variables were examined for the two Muslim groups and the non-Muslim group whose mothers were non-English speaking (NES), no statistically significant differences were observed. Oral health promotion should therefore consider that there are three distinct dental high-risk groups for young Asian children: Muslim ES and NES mothers and non-Muslim NES mothers. Each group will require a different health promotion strategy. Non-English speaking mothers need adequate translation, whereas all Muslim mothers need help to find proper alternatives to baby-foods which, although common in the UK, are culturally inappropriate to Muslims.

Asia↗
PubMed2004

Knowledge, self-help and socioeconomic factors in South Asian and Caucasian diabetic patients.

AIMS: We carried out a survey of important nonclinical issues including awareness and self-management of diabetes on a group of South Asian and Caucasian patients attending diabetic clinics within a set period. METHODS: A structured questionnaire examined various issues including demographics, perceived knowledge and awareness of diabetes, perceived self-help/support, and psycho-social factors. A total of 500 patients (268 South Asians and 232 Caucasian) took part. RESULTS: Univariate analysis showed significant differences (P<0.05) with various issues including a lower perceived awareness of diabetes and its complications in South Asians, and of the nutritional content of their diet. Asians also appeared to be less worried in the event of missed clinical appointments and if treatment was not strictly adhered to. CONCLUSIONS: The study provides evidence of the inability of health information systems to convey the importance of diabetic control to the Asian population. In order that this important information reaches the required recipients, more assertive and perhaps more culturally acceptable methods need to be explored.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Diabetic retinopathy progression and visual outcome after phacoemulsification in South-Asian and Afro-Caribbean patients with diabetes.

PURPOSE: To determine diabetic retinopathy or maculopathy progression and visual outcome following phacoemulsification in South-Asian and Afro-Caribbean patients with diabetes. METHODS: Review of notes of patients with type II diabetes undergoing phacoemulsification by one surgeon. The inclusion criteria were: (a) South-Asian or Afro-Caribbean ethnicity, (b) monocular cases with a minimum postoperative follow-up of 6 months, and (c) binocular cases with an interval of at least 6 months between the operation in the two eyes. The nonoperated eye was used as control. The development or progression of diabetic retinopathy or maculopathy and final visual acuity were recorded. RESULTS: In all, 30 diabetic patients were included. There were 19 South-Asians (Pakistani, Indian, and Bangladeshi) and 11 Afro-Caribbeans. The mean (+/-SD) age was 68.9 (+/-10) years. Retinopathy or maculopathy progression was noted in seven patients (23.4%), two South-Asians, and five Afro-Caribbeans. There was no significant difference in the number of operated and fellow eyes whose retinopathy or maculopathy progressed postoperatively. Progression of retinopathy or maculopathy occurred more often in Afro-Caribbeans compared to South-Asians (P=0.02, logistic regression analysis). The mean (+/-SD) postoperative follow-up was 12.4 (+/-6.5) months. Visual acuity improved by at least two or more Snellen lines in 19 eyes (63.3%); 26 eyes (86.7%) achieved a final visual acuity of at least 6/12. CONCLUSIONS: Afro-Caribbeans may be at a higher risk of progression of retinopathy or maculopathy after phacoemulsification.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Understanding of heart disease and diabetes in a South Asian community: cross-sectional study testing the 'snowball' sample method.

South Asian people living in the UK have a higher rate of heart disease and non-insulin-dependent diabetes. Research into health knowledge and beliefs around these diseases is lacking. Accessing South Asian communities is difficult and is a barrier to research. We have undertaken a cross-sectional survey of South Asian people living in South Tyneside (UK) in 1996 based on a snowball sample to assess understanding of heart disease and diabetes. 334 South Asian men and women aged 16-74 y were interviewed. For heart disease, 115 (35%) people said they did not understand the meaning of the term, 62 (19%) were unable to provide any description, 48 (14%) could not give a single cause, and 54 (17%) could not suggest a preventive measure. For diabetes, 92 (28%) people did not understand the term, 43 (13%) could not provide any description, 75 (22%) were unable to suggest any risk factor and 64 (20%) could not give a preventive measure. For both heart disease and diabetes, two-thirds of respondents said they did not understand enough about the conditions to prevent them. There were important differences by sex and country of origin on the level of understanding with women and Bangladeshi people having lower levels of knowledge. Three of 20 people diagnosed with heart disease knew no preventive measure, and of 16 people with diabetes, six could not name any risk factors for diabetes. There is a major, urgent need for education within the South Asian communities on the causes and prevention of heart disease and diabetes.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1987

Muscle strength in healthy white and Asian subjects: the relationship of quadriceps maximum voluntary contraction to age, sex, body build and vitamin D.

1. The maximum voluntary isometric contraction (MVC) of the dominant quadriceps muscle was measured in 136 healthy White and 172 healthy Hindu Asian subjects resident in London, using a specially designed chair equipped with a force measuring load cell. 2. Males were stronger than females, and for both sexes MVC declined with age. From age 20 to 60 the annual decline in MVC ranged from 0.56% in White males to 1.5% in female Asians. 3. White subjects were stronger than Asian subjects even after correcting for the effect of age, height, weight and sex in a multi-factorial analysis. 4. Only in males did MVC correlate with height and weight. Asian women were more obese than any other group, and showed an increase in body mass index with age. 5. Twenty-two per cent of Asian subjects had marked vitamin D deficiency (plasma 25-hydroxycholecalciferol less than 10 nmol/1). There was no correlation between MVC, and plasma 25-hydroxycholecalciferol.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Decreased fibrinolytic potential in South Asian women with ischaemic cerebrovascular disease.

To investigate gender differences in conventional, coagulation and fibrinolytic factors in South Asian ischaemic stroke patients, we compared these variables in 50 South Asian females (SAFP) with 90 South Asian males (SAMP) with ischaemic stroke and in 52 females (SAFC) and 38 males (SAMC) without stroke. Plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) antigen levels were significantly higher in SAFP compared with SAMP (18.2 vs. 13.3 U/ml, P = 0.04) even after adjustment for known covariates, but there was no difference in PAI-1 antigen levels between males and females in the control group. South Asian females exhibited higher levels of factor VII antigen and FVII:C activity in both stroke patients (114 vs. 99% in males, P = 0.01; 116 versus 104% in males, P = 0.04) and controls (116 vs. 97% in males, P = 0.004; 115 vs. 93% in males, P = 0.01). There were no significant differences in the levels of fibrinogen (3.8 vs. 3.7 g/l), FXIIa (2.2 vs. 2.4 ng/ml), von Willebrand factor (1.8 vs. 1.9 IU/ml) and tissue plasminogen activator (11.4 vs. 12.0 ng/ml) in SAMP and SAFP respectively. These results suggest that South Asian females have increased FVII levels and that females with a history of ischaemic stroke have a decreased fibrinolytic potential in comparison with males.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

The impact of Asian descent on the incidence of acquired severe aplastic anaemia in children.

Previous studies have suggested an increased incidence of acquired severe aplastic anaemia in Asian populations. We evaluated the incidence of aplastic anaemia in people of Asian descent, using a well-defined paediatric (0-14 years) population in British Columbia, Canada to minimize environmental factors. The incidence in children of East/South-east Asian descent (6.9/million/year) and South Asian (East Indian) descent (7.3/million/year) was higher than for those of White/mixed ethnic descent (1.7/million/year). There appeared to be no contribution by environmental factors. This study shows that Asian children have an increased incidence of severe aplastic anaemia possibly as a result of a genetic predisposition.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2001

Prevalence of gestational thyrotoxicosis in Asian women evaluated in the 8th to 14th weeks of pregnancy: correlations with total and free beta human chorionic gonadotrophin.

OBJECTIVES: The prevalence of gestational transient thyrotoxicosis (GTT) in Europeans evaluated during the 8th to 14th weeks of pregnancy is 2-3%. However, there is evidence that GTT may be more common in some Asian populations. The aims of this study were to evaluate the prevalence of thyroid hormone abnormalities in Asian women in their 8th to 14th weeks of pregnancy using highly sensitive free T4 and TSH assays and to correlate these with total and free beta-hCG levels. DESIGN AND PATIENTS: One hundred and eighty-four consecutive unselected Asian (Singaporean) pregnant women seen at ante-natal clinics for the first time and who were in their 8th to 14th weeks of pregnancy were tested. MEASUREMENTS: Serum free T4, free T3, TSH, total beta-hCG and free beta-HCG levels were measured on the Vitros ECi system (Johnson & Johnson Ortho-Clinical Diagnostics, Amersham, UK) which employs chemiluminescent immunochemical technology. This free T4 assay is free of biases related to serum binding capacity. The TSH assay used was a third generation assay. Thyrotrophin-receptor antibody (TRAb) levels were measured using LUMItest TRAK (BRAHMS Diagnostica, Berlin, Germany). RESULTS: Two subjects (1.1%) were found to have Graves' disease. Elevated free T4, free T3, total T3 and suppressed TSH were seen in 14.8%, 3.3%, 26.4% and 33.0% of the remaining 182 pregnant women, respectively. Total and free beta-hCG correlated negatively with TSH (r = -0.30, P < 0.0001 and r = -0.29, P < 0.0001, respectively), positively with fT4 (r = 0.283, P < 0.001 and r = 0.253, P < 0.001) and fT3 (r = 0.273, P < 0.001 and r = 0.204, P < 0.01). 11.0% of cases had gestational thyrotoxicosis (GT) defined as elevated free T4 (> 19.1 pmol/l), suppressed TSH (< 0.36 mIU/l) and TRAb levels within the reference interval (0-0.9 U/l). The prevalence of GT was significantly higher in patients tested at 8-11 weeks compared to those evaluated at 12-14 weeks (14.4% vs. 4.7%, P < 0.05). Total beta-hCG (P = 0.0002), free beta-hCG (P < 0.0001) and free T4 (P = 0.02) levels were higher and TSH levels (P = 0.01) lower in patients tested at 8-11 weeks. Significant positive correlations between both total and free beta-hCG with free T4 were seen at 8-11 weeks but not in patients tested at 12 weeks or later. TT3 levels were similar in the two groups. CONCLUSIONS: Using sensitive assays, the prevalence of gestational thyrotoxicosis in Asian women was found to be 11.0% and was significantly higher in subjects at 8-11 weeks of gestation than at 12-14 weeks. The positive correlation between hCG and free T4 seen in patients tested at 8-11 weeks was absent in patients tested at later stages of the first trimester. Future studies investigating the entity of gestational thyrotoxicosis, at least in Asian patients, should focus on patients at earlier stages of gestation than currently practised.

Chorionic Gonadotropin, beta Subunit, Human↗
PubMed2001

A comparison of urinary incontinence among African American, Asian, Hispanic, and white women.

OBJECTIVE: This study was undertaken to compare urodynamic findings and the rate of incontinence diagnoses among various ethnic groups. STUDY DESIGN: Data were collected for all new patients referred to the urogynecology clinic during a 10-year period. One hundred ninety-five Hispanic, 95 white, 66 Asian, and 59 African American women had urodynamic testing and were included in the study. All women had a complete history, physical examination, and multichannel urodynamic studies. Demographic data, urodynamic data, and final diagnoses differences were analyzed. RESULTS: African American women had higher maximum urethral closure pressures than Hispanic, white, or Asian women (58 cm H2O vs 47, 47, and 48 cm H2O; P =.001, P =.005, and P =.02). African American women were less likely to be diagnosed with genuine stress incontinence than were Hispanic or white women (42% vs 67% and 59%; P <.001 and P =.046). Detrusor instability was diagnosed more often in African American women than in Hispanic, white, or Asian women (29% vs 8%, 15%, and 14%; P <.001, P =.04, and P =.04). CONCLUSIONS: African American women with urinary incontinence have different urodynamic diagnoses than Hispanic, white, or Asian women. Hispanic, white, and Asian women have similar rates of genuine stress incontinence. Although African American women have lower rates of genuine stress incontinence than Hispanic and white women, they have higher rates of detrusor instability than all 3 groups.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Dietary practices among Europeans and different South Asian groups in Coventry.

The dietary customs of people of South Asian origin living in Britain are important determinants of health but have been relatively little studied. As part of the Coventry study of diabetes carried out in the Foleshill ward of the city, subjects undergoing oral glucose tolerance tests provided information on this aspect of lifestyle. A questionnaire was completed by all of the last 612 subjects undergoing testing. These included 304 of European origin, 118 Punjabi Sikhs, seventy-six Pakistani/Punjabi Moslems, twenty-eight Gujerati Moslems, twenty-five Punjabi Hindus and forty-seven Gujerati Hindus. There were no discernible differences in the dietary customs of those with normal glucose tolerance, impaired glucose tolerance and newly diagnosed diabetes. Subjects of South Asian origin ate significantly fewer meals per day than European subjects. Evening meal times were 2-3 h later among South Asians. Europeans ate less fruit but more vegetables and more brown rice than South Asians. Gujeratis ate more rice, fried snacks and white flour. Moslems were least likely to be vegetarians, to drink alcohol and to use home-made ghee and yoghurt, and Punjabi Sikhs and Hindus ate dhal more frequently than Pakistani Moslems, Gujerati Moslems or Hindus. Most South Asians ate Indian sweets and 'Western' snacks.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Ages of eruption of the permanent teeth in Kenyan African and asian children.

Mean ages of eruption of the permanent teeth (except 3rd molars) in African and Asian children were derived from a cross-sectional study of 2847 children aged 4-14 years, in selected nursery and primary schools in Nairobi, Kenya. Except for the premolars, the mandibular teeth erupted earlier than the maxillary ones in both races. The mandibular incisors and canines erupted earlier by 0.9-1.1 yr in Africans and 0.6-0.8 yr in Asians, and the molar by 0.2-0.4 yr in both races. The maxillary premolars were ahead of mandibular premolars by 0.1-0.2 yr in both races. The females were ahead of males in both races. Compared with the Asians, the African permanent teeth erupted earlier by 0.2-0.7 yr. The most frequent order of eruption in Africans is Mand I1, Mand M1, Max M1, Mand I2, and Max I1 between 5-7 years, while in the Asians the most frequent order is Mand M1, Mand I1, or Max M1, Max I1 and Mand I2 between 6-8 years. The incidence of Cusp of Carabelli in Africans and Asians is about 19-25%.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

The third permanent molar eruption in Kenyan Africans and Asians.

Data on third permanent molar eruption was obtained from a cross-sectional study of 1343 African and 1092 Asian students aged 13-23 years attending various schools in Nairobi and the University of Nairobi, Kenya. Africans are significantly ahead of the Asians in third molar emergence. As seen from the median age of eruption, in Africans mandibular molars emerge at 17.6-18.3 years followed by the maxillary at 18.5-18.9 years, while in the Asians mandibular molars emerge at 19.9-20.3 years and maxillary at 20.7-21.0 years. African females appear to be earlier than the males in median age of eruption by 0.3-0.4 years, while the Asian females tend to be later than the males by about 0.3 years, but these differences are not significant. Third molar emergence starts earlier in Africans at 13 years of age, and by 18.5 years 50% of Africans have all four molars present. In the Asians, third molar emergence begins at about 15 years and by 21.5 years 50% have all four molars present.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

Nutrient intake of first generation Gujarati Asian Indian immigrants in the U.S.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the nutrient intake of Gujarati Asian Indian immigrants in the U.S. and the influence of length of residence in the U.S. and socioeconomic status (SES) on their macronutrient intake. METHODS: Subjects were male (n = 90) and female (n = 99) Gujarati Asian Indian immigrants over the age of 45. Each participant completed a 24-hour dietary recall. Dietary recalls were analyzed using Food Processor nutrient analysis software. Participants were classified into recent immigrants (<10 years length of residence in the U.S.) and long-term immigrants (>10 years length of residence in the U.S.) and into low, medium and high education groups, based on highest level of education achieved, to examine the influence of these variables on their macronutrient intake. RESULTS: The macronutrient contributions to the total energy intake of these Gujarati Asian Indian immigrants were as follows: carbohydrate 57%, protein 12% and total fat 33%. The diets were low in cholesterol (<100 mg/day) and high in dietary fiber (>/=25 g/day). Reported intakes of vitamin D, calcium (women only), potassium (women only), copper and zinc were less than two-thirds of the recommendations. Significant differences (p < 0.05) in macronutrient intake were observed based on length of residence in the U.S. and SES. Regression analysis indicates age, total energy intake, length of residence in the U.S. and SES to have a significant influence on the nutrient intake of these Gujarati Asian Indian immigrants. CONCLUSION: The nutrient intakes of these Gujarati Asian Indian immigrants indicate both inadequacies and excesses of select macro and micronutrients. These nutrient inadequacies and excesses can impact overall health and risk of chronic diseases of these individuals. Further investigation of the influence of the diets of these immigrants on their health is warranted.

Aged↗
PubMed2000

Correlates of high-risk sexual behaviour among Canadian men of South Asian and European origin who have sex with men.

A sample of 98 Canadian homosexual and bisexual men, 46 of South Asian and 52 of European origin, who had sex with other than an exclusive primary partner were asked about their high-risk sexual behaviours during the previous six months. They were also queried about internalized homophobia, acculturation to the gay community, and for South Asians acculturation to the majority culture. Participants who reported more internalized homophobia were more likely to engage in both high-risk anal and oral sex. South Asian men exhibited significantly greater levels of homophobia. In addition, South Asian men who were less acculturated to the majority culture were more likely to engage in both types of high-risk sex. These data suggest a need to address internalized homophobia in HIV prevention programmes with homosexual and bisexual men generally, and further suggest the need to target less acculturated South Asian men in particular.

Acculturation↗