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The computer-based medical record: current status.

At the turn of the century, neither hospitals nor physicians routinely kept clinical records. Since then, the medical record has gradually evolved. More recently, as society and medicine have become more complex and sophisticated, inadequacies of the paper medical record have become increasingly apparent. The computer-based medical record addresses many of the deficiencies of the paper record. Meanwhile, barriers to computer-based records have decreased; hardware has become more affordable, powerful, and compact, and software has been refined. Socially, the major payers for health care are demanding verification of the effectiveness and quality of care, information that involves data-intensive research. The electronic medical record promises to improve quality of care by providing point-of-care reminder and decision support tools as well as a database for substantiating the effectiveness of care. In conjunction with the growing integration of computers into all facets of life, government agencies, computer giants, and medical organizations are currently laying the groundwork for the development of standardized elements and formats for computer-based medical information systems. As part of the continuing evolution of the medical record, we foresee these forces culminating in the computerization of the clinical record. In this review, we briefly describe the developments that led us to this conclusion and describe computer-based clinical record systems in use in two family practice settings.

Decision Support Techniques↗

Features of medical records in community practices and their association with preventive service delivery.

BACKGROUND: Medical records are important for facilitating the process and quality of care. However, little is known about their current state in primary care practices. This article describes features of medical record systems in diverse practices and examines their association with preventive service delivery rates. METHODS: Medical records were reviewed from a consecutive sample of outpatients seen by 198 family physicians in 79 community-based practices in Northeast Ohio. The physicians were participants in a clinical trial designed to increase preventive service delivery. Research nurses performed baseline medical record reviews and used ethnographic field notes and a practice environment checklist to provide global assessments of features of medical records. RESULTS: In 79 practices, 3462 medical records were reviewed. Medical records were rated as highly easy to use in 52% of practices; outpatient visit notes were dictated in 54%. Nine percent of practices grouped individual charts by family. Patient notes were computerized in 1% of practices, although several practices had previously tried and abandoned computerized systems. Flow sheets for immunization, screening, and counseling were present on 71%, 63%, and 16% of charts and were used on 34%, 33%, and 3% of charts, respectively. The presence and use of flow sheets were associated with higher preventive service delivery rates. CONCLUSION: Medical record organization, completeness, and use vary widely, and computerized records remain rare. The association of flow sheet presence and use with preventive service delivery rates shows the potential importance of medical records for enhancing the process and outcome of patient care.

Adolescent↗

Database technology for medical records.

Paper truncation may be the first goal that comes to mind when people think of computerized medical records, but this is probably the least realistic goal at present. Structuring a medical records system to improve record quality and to open the door to data analysis are two more realistic goals. Of the many significant barriers to computerized medical records, the most serious is the lack of agreement in the medical community regarding what should go into a medical record. Even small steps in that area should bring major improvements in available medical records software. Choosing a database for medical records requires familiarity with database principles and a detailed understanding of data needs. The safe choice is an SQL-based relational database, but a smaller system will suffice if present and future medical records challenges are small enough. The rate of change in the computer world is increasing all the time. Emerging and maturing technologies that can have a significant impact on medical records software include data entry tools such as the mouse, pen, and voice; better data retrieval tools such as GUIs and 4GLs; and software tools that use rules, pattern-matching, hypermedia links, and fuzzy logic to create systems that seem to think like humans. While computerized medical records systems are not yet comparable with medical office management systems, they should be someday. In the meantime, smart physicians will begin exploring possibilities on their own in order to reap some benefits at an early stage and to be better prepared when the tide finally turns.

Databases, Factual↗

Missing prenatal records at a birth center: a communication problem quantified.

OBJECTIVES: To quantify the extent of missing prenatal records at the time of patient presentation to a birth center, to document the age of the information in those records, and to discover how quickly missing records were retrieved. METHOD: A survey form was completed over a three-month period for each patient presenting for care. RESULTS: Prenatal records were unavailable 37% of the time at initial presentation. Records were never obtained for 20% of patients. The median age of the prenatal record was 30 days for those records that were immediately available, and the median age was 5 days for those records that were retrieved later. It took a median of 1.4 hours to retrieve a missing re-cord. CONCLUSION: Prenatal records are frequently missing at the point-of-care, and even when records are avail-able or retrieved, the information contained within them is likely to be outdated. Further research is needed to quantify both the clinical and economic impact of this problem.

Birthing Centers↗

Two stage audit of cerebrovascular and coronary heart disease risk factor recording: the effect of case finding and screening programmes.

The level of recording of risk factors for cardiovascular disease by general practitioners in north east Scotland has been audited. The effect of the audit on recording levels has also been determined by means of a second audit one year later. Twenty four practices in Grampian took part in the study, each auditing a random selection of 100 records of male patients aged 35-64 years. The risk factors chosen were blood pressure, smoking habit, alcohol consumption, weight and height. Blood pressure was recorded in the majority of the records (68.0%) and the mean level of recording of all of the risk factors increased between the two audits. The increase in the recording of smoking habit, alcohol consumption and weight was statistically significant. Practices with organized systems of data collection had higher levels of risk factor recording than those without. The levels of recording achieved were thus dependent on factors that existed in the practices prior to the study. This suggests that to increase recording levels, future educational intervention should be aimed at changes of motivation.

Adult↗

Structured encounter form: the impact on provider performance and recording of well-child care.

The impact of record format on provider performance and recording of the process of care and their concordance were examined in this study. The process of care was defined by existing sets of explicit criteria developed for quality assessment. The study was conducted in an urban teaching hospital pediatric primary care clinic. Housestaff were encouraged, but not required, to use the clinic's structured, age-specific forms for recording well-child care. Performance and recording were compared during required well-child visits using the structured form and those using the basic clinic form. Study data from 1031 visits to 68 housestaff during a 14-month period were collected using medical record abstracting of all visits and direct observation of 243 of them. Twenty-three of the providers were assigned randomly to an unobserved control group to assess the effect of observation on recording. Use of the structured form was associated with significantly higher levels of both recorded and observed performance. When performance could be merely checked off to document performance, overdocumentation was found. Record-based estimates of performance were more accurate during visits when the structured form was used. Record format can improve provider performance and recording of the process of care.

Child↗

New Zealand hospital records insufficient for vitamin K study.

AIMS: To assess the availability and completeness of existing hospital records, required for a proposed case-control study of vitamin K administration to neonates and childhood cancer. METHODS: We surveyed 44 hospitals, to see whether they had kept records for children born during 1962-87. Additionally, we sought the neonatal records of 44 Dunedin-born people who would be in the proposed study if it went ahead. We abstracted details of vitamin K administration from the records found. RESULTS: There were 36 responses to our survey (82%). For two-thirds of the hospitals, neonatal records were not available for all of the period 1962-87. The commonest reason for unavailability of records was that they had been destroyed. Neonatal records could be found for 34 (77%) of those born in Dunedin. Although 30 records indicated that vitamin K had been given, only 17 gave the route of administration. CONCLUSIONS: Our proposed study is not feasible because of the poor availability of records and the lack of details recorded. We support the introduction of regulations requiring hospitals to retain health information for a specified time, and we argue that the minimum period for hospitals should be longer than has been proposed.

Case-Control Studies↗

Disagreement between hospital medical records and a structured patient interview on the type and date of the first symptom in cancers of the digestive tract.

Medical records have often been found to be less reliable than interviews to patients when data on the initial signs and symptoms of cancer, and the out-of-hospital diagnostic process are sought; in spite of this, a large body of research on "diagnostic delay" in cancer is based on clinical records. As part of a study on delay in neoplasms of the digestive tract we analyzed the agreement on the type and date of the initial symptom between hospital records and a structured personal interview. Records were abstracted for a random sample (N = 60) of 183 patients interviewed. Concordance on the date of the first symptom was deemed to exist if the difference was +/- 30 days. The Kappa index (kappa) and the overall proportion of agreement (with its corresponding 95% confidence interval) were used. Medical records and structured personal interviews were concordant on the type of the first neoplastic symptom in only 61% of cases (kappa = 0.50): 67% in esophagus cancer (kappa = 0.49), 60% in stomach cancer (kappa = 0.52), and 61% in colorectal cancer (kappa = 0.50). Records underestimated the occurrence of anorexia as first symptom and overestimated weight loss and dysphagia. Only 56% of cases were date-concordant, the agreement being lower in colorectal cancer (46%) than in esophageal (67%) and stomach cancer (75%). Records indicated the first symptom to have occurred at a later date than interviews in 33% of cases; overall, a study based on hospital records would have underestimated the symptom to diagnosis interval by 2.2 months per patient. Only 40% of cases were totally (symptom and date) concordant. Marked discrepancies may exist between the information contained in medical records and what patients report during a structured interview. The quality of medical records data on the duration and nature of cancer symptoms should be assessed before its use in etiologic and evaluative research.

Aged↗

The registration function as a critical dependency in a lifetime clinical record (LCR).

Over the past two years, we have successfully migrated the Regenstrief Clinical Information System into our hospital. Integral to this process was the need to develop interfaces and processes supporting movements of patient identification data between the existing clinical management system (Unity, SMS) and Carebase (RCIS). Critical to the implementation of Carebase was the development of an interface between Carebase and the registration system based upon a unique medical record number. Even more critical was the development of stable processes that supported the accurate patient identification and assignment of medical record numbers. The medical record number at our institution is assigned or verified at the time of registration. Major problems occurred when patients presented during system down-times and existing medical record numbers could not be accessed, resulting in multiple registrations and medical record numbers for the same patient. This resulted in data fragmentation and required merging at a later date. Other more serious problems resulted from the assignment of the same medical record number to separate patients and with the mixing of data from multiple patients into one patient record. This was largely due to the failure of clerical personnel to appropriately identify patients at the time of registration, or multiple patients sharing identification documents, a common problem in our geographic area. Given that clinical data was to be maintained and added to the repository for several decades, errors such as these in registration would prove catastrophic. The interfaces between the various clinical systems that pass data to Carebase are all HL-standard and largely prevent data passage if registration data is inaccurate. During the early stages of implementation, approximately 300 exceptions per day were generated from clinical systems attempting to pass data to the repository. Following re¿engineering of the registration process, education of clerical personnel, and analysis of exception type, the number of exceptions due to faulty registration data fell to less than one per week. To achieve improvement in exception volume, several innovative measures were undertaken. Firstly, down-time procedures were changed to require query of the LCR for existing registration data. The LCR was maintained on a separate platform that experienced essentially no down-time and was available for this purpose. This largely eliminated the need for the use of "down-time numbers" or medical record numbers that could be temporarily assigned to patients registered when the registration system was unavailable (data would subsequently be merged into existing patient records if the patient was found to be currently in the system). If the patient was not in the LCR, then a permanent number was assigned in sequence. A registration dataset was developed and encoded onto a magnetic card (Carecard, Eltrax) and carried by patients. This enabled the rapid verification of registration data on subsequent visits to the parent institution or affiliated clinical sites. The issue of fraudulent use of the card and encoded registration dataset, however, remained problematic. Currently, a new imaging system is being installed that will soon enable the inclusion of a photograph of the patient as a component of the registration dataset. Perhaps the most significant change in the registration process involved the education of central registration and admitting personnel. An educational program was developed that reinforced the need for accuracy in collecting registration data, identifying patients, and assigning medical record numbers; more importantly, it stressed the linkage of the registration function and patient care. Lastly, an aggressive approach to monitoring exceptions resulting from errors in registration was developed. A near real-time process for identifying errors in registrations allowed for rapid intervention and feedback to involved de

Medical Records Systems, Computerized↗

Community based estimation of perinatal mortality through record linkage.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate perinatal mortality through record linkage of Health Workers (HW) and Anganwadi Workers (AWW) in rural Haryana. DESIGN: Retrospective analysis of records (1991-92) of HW and AWW. Enquiry and home visits were made for tracing the fate of pregnancy in cases with incomplete records. SETTING: In 1993-95 in 45 villages selected purposively in Raipur Rani block, Ambala. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Enlisting of perinatal deaths as the main outcome measure through scrutiny of records of HW and AWW. RESULTS: Perinatal mortality rate (PMR) was 42.25 and 45.78 per thousand births as per the record of HW and AWW, respectively for the 23 villages for whom records of both were available. Support by enquiry or home visit yielded a PMR of 59.42 for combined HW and AWW sources and 51.66 per 1000 births for AWW source alone. Concordance between AWW and HW records for fate of pregnancy was moderate (K = 0.46; 95% CI 0.35-0.57). CONCLUSIONS: There is a lack of a system of record linkage between and within the records of HW and AWW at primary health care level. AWW data was more accurate and up-to-date as compared to HW. Reasonably accurate estimates of perinatal mortality rate can be made through record linkage.

Child↗

Federated healthcare record server--the Synapses paradigm.

The delivery of healthcare relies on the sharing of patient information between those who are providing for the care of the patient and this information is increasingly being expressed in terms of a 'record'. Further, it is desirable that these records are available in electronic form as Electronic HealthCare Records. As it is likely that patient records or parts of records will be stored in many different information systems and in the form of disparate record architectures, uniform access to patient records would be problematic. This paper presents an overview of the Synapses computing environment in which a Federated Healthcare Record Server provides uniform access to patient information stored in connected heterogeneous autonomous information systems and other Synapses servers. The Synapses record architecture is based on the architecture proposed by the Technical Committee 251 of the European Committee for Standardisation and the interfaces to the Synapses server are specified in the ISO standard Interface Definition Language. Synapses is a pan-European project involving a number of hospitals, software companies, universities and research institutes and is partly funded by the EU Health Telematics Programme. The overview is described in terms of the Open Distributed Processing Reference Model.

Computer Communication Networks↗

New medical record system in Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Hong Kong.

During the 1980's, the medical record problems had been identified and it was not until 1991 that Queen Elizabeth Hospital was chosen to be the pilot hospital for the development of a new medical record management system for the Hospital Authority hospitals. The new medical records system was implemented in Queen Elizabeth Hospital in December, 1993. Six month after implementation, a pre-implementation and post-implementation review of the medical record services were conducted to compare the results of the new and old system. The results showed that there were significant improvements in the record retrieval and record integrity in the new system. New medical record services such as the delivery of readmission records to the ward, filing of medical records forms in pre-defined order and filing of loose sheets in the relevant hospital notes are able to facilitate the efficient, effective and complete access to patient information. The support and cooperation of the hospital staff are crucial to the success of the new system. Continuous review and improvement of the new system is essential in order to obtain the best results.

Disease↗

Acceptance and use of patient-carried health records.

The ultimate goals of providing health records to patients are to improve continuity of care, to improve patient understanding of instructions, and to encourage patients to take a more active role in maintaining their health. In the current study, four types of patient-carried health records were evaluated in a hospital-based outpatient service to determine whether records would be accepted and used, to estimate the cost of the process, and to obtain patient and provider reactions. Records were provided at moderate cost and the primary determinants in record acceptance and use were physicians' support of the process, the type of record, and the employment status of the patient. A small record which could be carried in a wallet seemed suited to most patients; other more elaborate participatory records appeared to have benefits for selected patients. More extensive use of participatory records appears to require changes in the way health care would be delivered.

Attitude of Health Personnel↗

[Evaluation of the quality of filling out medical records in a hypertension consultation].

The aim of the study was to evaluate the completion of medical records of a hypertension clinic and to compare standardized computerized records versus standard medical records. The medical records of 163 consecutive hypertensive patients attending at the Broussais hospital hypertension clinic between December 1995, 6th and January 1996, 21st were checked. At the last visit, the patients were attended by 16 physicians working in 4 different teams. The medical data were recorded by physicians in the computerized system called ARTEMIS in 120 patients and in standard structured forms in 43 patients. The patients notes were checked to see if 9 clinical items were recorded at the first visit (V1), at the visit before last (V2) and at the last visit (V3). The overall completion rate was high at V1 (92.2%) and significantly decreased at follow-up visits (82.6% at V2 and 83.2% at V3). The completion rate was significantly higher in the computerized records than in the standard notes: 95.8% vs 82.2% at V1, 91.9% vs 56.3% at V2 and 91.6% vs 59.7% at V3. During follow-up (V2 vs V1), a significant decrease in the completion rate of 6 items was observed in the standard notes (tobacco use, alcohol consumption, physical activity, compliance to treatment, body weight, manual blood pressure measurement). In the computerized records, only physical activity completion rate decreased. In conclusion, the computer may help to increase the quality of the medical records as reflected by the completion rate of items related to hypertension care.

Cardiology Service, Hospital↗

Recording and physical characteristics of disposable concentric needle EMG electrodes.

There is currently considerable interest in using disposable concentric needle (CN) electrodes for clinical electromyography (EMG). To determine how these electrodes compare with reusable CN electrodes, we have compared signals recorded by these two electrode types from the same muscle in normal subjects. We also made similar recordings with two groups of reusable electrodes. There was no difference in the features of motor unit action potentials (MUAPs) recorded by the two groups of reusable electrodes. Disposable electrodes performed satisfactorily in conventional EMG examination. However, compared to reusable electrodes, the disposable electrodes recorded MUAPs with smaller amplitude and area but with the same area:amplitude ratio and MUAP duration. The physical and electrical properties of the CNE groups were also investigated. Disposable electrodes had lower electrical resistance and greater capacitance than reusable electrodes when measurements were made in saline. Photomicrographs showed that the disposable electrodes had smaller recording surfaces and that the central wire was frequently eccentric in the cannula. The differences in electrical recording characteristics could be due to differences in the size of the recording surface, eccentric placement of the central wire in the cannula or differences in the metal used for the central wire. We conclude that electrical and physical testing may not predict the recording characteristics of needle electrodes. Electrophysiologic testing is necessary to determine how EMG signals recorded by new types of electrodes compare with those recorded by currently used electrodes.

Action Potentials↗

Recording characteristics of monopolar EMG electrodes.

Motor unit action potentials (MUAPs) and the electromyographic (EMG) interference pattern (IP) were recorded from the biceps muscle of 5 normal subjects using both a concentric needle (CN) and a disposable monopolar needle (MN) electrode. The MUAPs recorded by the MN electrode had higher amplitude and area and were more frequently complex than those recorded with the CN electrode. The MUAP duration and area: amplitude ratio were similar for both electrodes. Although the MN electrode had a larger recording surface, its dimensions (maximum diameter and length of the cone shaped tip) were similar to those of the CN electrode (minor and major axes of the elliptical recording tip). Based on these observations, we infer that the MN electrode may be more selective than the CN electrode, ie, the AP amplitude recorded by the MN electrode decreases faster than the AP amplitude recorded by a CN electrode when the distance of the muscle fiber from the recording electrode increases. Photomicrographs of the MN electrode after use demonstrated no evidence that the insulating material had peeled off. There was also no evidence that MUAP measurement values changed during the recordings as would be expected if the recording surface changed due to peeling of the insulating material.

Action Potentials↗

SBR: a computer program to record and analyse sexual behavior in rodents.

SBR (Sexual Behavior Recorder) is a program designed to record and analyse data from research on the sexual behavior of rats and other animals with similar patterns of sexual behavior. SBR allows the user to record the characteristic events of both the male and female's sexual behavior: mounts, intromissions, ejaculations and lordosis. It also allows the user to record two other types of events, and analyse them in terms of frequency and duration, using two user-defined keys. The program allows the correction of any event erroneously recorded. SBR can simultaneously control observations made by one or two observers, and on one or two experiment boxes. In the case that two observers record from the same experiment box, the program calculates a set of measures of reliability between the observers. At the end of each observation, SBR conducts a descriptive analysis of the recorded events, including the parameters normally used in scientific literature on the subject, and writes this analysis to disk files. As well as the default calculation parameters, it is possible to calculate any other, or to use the program as a record of general purpose events using the file which contains all the recorded events in sequential order and the exact time at which they were recorded. SBR was written using the compiler Turbobasic 1.1 from Borland International Inc. (1987).

Animals↗

Contributions from the auditory nerve to the brain-stem auditory evoked potentials (BAEPs): results of intracranial recording in man.

Intraoperative recordings obtained from electrodes placed on the scalp (vertex and earlobe or ear canal) in response to click stimulation were compared with recordings made directly from the auditory nerve in patients undergoing microvascular decompression (MVD) operations to relieve hemifacial spasm (HFS) and disabling positional vertigo (DPV). The results support earlier findings that show that the auditory nerve is the generator of both peak I and peak II in man, and that it is the intracranial portion of the auditory nerve that generates peak II. The results indicate that the second negative peak in the potentials recorded from the earlobe is generated by the auditory nerve where it passes through the porus acusticus into the skull cavity, and that the proximal portion of the intracranial portion of the auditory nerve generates a positive peak in the potentials that are recorded from the vertex. This peak appears with a latency that is slightly longer than that of the second negative peak in the potentials recorded from the earlobe (or ear canal). The second negative peak in the recording from the ear canal and the positive peak in the vertex recording contribute to peak II in the differentially recorded BAEP. Since our results indicate that the difference in the latency of the second negative peak in the recording from the earlobe and that of the positive peak in the vertex recording represents the neural travel time in the intracranial portion of the auditory nerve, this measure may be valuable in the differential diagnosis of eighth nerve disorders such as vascular compression syndrome.

Brain Stem↗