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PubMed1989

Reading with one hemisphere.

The subjects of this study were 2 originally right-handed teen-aged girls who had undergone complete hemispherectomy (1 left, 1 right) for intractable epilepsy. Both subjects had developed normal language and reading capacities before the onset of their illness. The reading performance of H.P. (whose right hemisphere had been removed), while not as advanced in level as that of a normal 17-yr-old, showed no abnormality in any subcomponent of reading skill. The reading performance of N.I. (whose left hemisphere had been removed) was poor, but with a pattern of retained and impaired subskills strikingly similar to adult deep dyslexic patients and to split-brain patients given reading tasks lateralized to the left visual field (right hemisphere). The results are discussed with regard to implications for the reading capacity of the nondominant right hemisphere and also its putative contribution to normal reading.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

More than words: a common neural basis for reading and naming deficits in developmental dyslexia?

Dyslexic individuals show subtle impairments in naming pictures of objects in addition to their difficulties with reading. The present study investigated whether word reading and picture naming deficits in developmental dyslexia can be reduced to a common neurological impairment. Eight dyslexic subjects, impaired on measures of reading, spelling and naming speed, were matched for age and general ability with 10 control subjects. Participants were scanned using PET during two experimental conditions: reading words and naming pictures in the form of corresponding line drawings. In addition, two high-level baseline conditions were used to control for visual and articulatory processes. Relative to the control group, the dyslexic participants showed reduced activation in a left occipitotemporal area during both word reading and picture naming. This was the case even in the context of intact behavioural performance during scanning. Abnormal activation in this region, as reported previously for reading, is therefore not specific to orthographic decoding but may reflect a more general impairment in integrating phonology and visual information. Our investigation points to a common neurological basis for deficits in word reading and picture naming in developmental dyslexia.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Implications of utilizing a phonics-based reading curriculum with children who are deaf or hard of hearing.

Extensive literature has reiterated the reading difficulties of students who are deaf or hard of hearing. Building and expanding upon the work of B. J. Trezek and K. W. Malmgren, this study demonstrated that given 1 year of instruction from a phonics-based reading curriculum supplemented by Visual Phonics, kindergarten and first-grade students who were deaf or hard of hearing could demonstrate improvements in beginning reading skills as measured by standardized assessments of (a) word reading, (b) pseudoword decoding, and (c) reading comprehension. Furthermore, the acquisition of beginning reading skills did not appear to be related to degree of hearing loss. In this study, students with various degrees of hearing loss benefited equally well from this phonics-based reading curriculum supplemented by Visual Phonics.

Auditory Threshold↗
PubMed1998

Temporal patterns of evoked cerebral blood flow during reading.

This study describes the dynamics of flow activation by reading and investigates the potential use of repeated flow velocity measurements for the lateralization of speech. Using simultaneous transcranial Doppler recordings from both middle cerebral arteries and averaging techniques in 25 healthy volunteers, we describe the changes in blood flow velocity caused by repetitive reading tasks of variable duration in comparison with a resting state. Reading aloud evoked a characteristic temporal flow pattern in both hemispheres, consisting of three relative maxima in flow velocity during and after activation. Flow velocities lower than baseline were common during longer lasting activation. The amplitudes of two of the observed peaks decreased depending on the duration of the task. Reading silently produced a markedly different temporal pattern of activation than reading aloud. There were individually reproducible significant side to side differences. Right-handed persons (n = 15) almost without exception showed a significantly higher increase in flow velocity on the left hemisphere (e.g., reading silently 8.7% versus 5.3%; P < 0.0001). Three out of ten left-handed individuals, however, exhibited no significant side to side difference or exhibited lateralization to the right during one or more of the tasks. These findings suggest that reading induces task-specific temporal patterns of regional neuronal activity, which show habituation with longer duration of activation. Additionally, the observed side to side differences could be useful to predict language dominance.

Adult↗
PubMed1982

Oculomotor functions in reading disability.

Oculomotor functions and information processing systems from a complex interaction in the achievement of reading skills, This study was designed to determine the relation between oculomotor functions and reading ability in fourth and sixth grade children. Four oculomotor functions were measured during the reading of digits and prose. The oculomotor functions were used independently and collectively to predict reading ability under both reading conditions. These relations were then examined with and without removal of the influence of verbal intelligence. The results indicate that when examined collectively, oculomotor functions are related to reading ability, but when oculomotor functions are examined independently, only marginally significant relations appear. Similar relations were found for both age groups. Verbal intelligence influenced some of the individual relations. The individual oculomotor functions that appeared responsible for the collective relation were frequency of fixations and lag of accommodation. A reciprocal-causation model between reading ability and oculomotor functions is proposed.

Accommodation, Ocular↗
PubMed1993

Diagnosis and management of reading dysfunction for the primary care optometrist.

A model for the identification/diagnosis and management of reading dysfunction for the primary care optometrist is presented. The model is based upon clinical experiences in both private and academic practice and an extensive review of the literature. The model, illustrated in a series of flow charts and a table, incorporates the major perceptual dysfunctions typically encountered by patients who present with reading problems. The first part of the model, labeled fundamental, demonstrates the minimum diagnostic and management techniques for those children who appear to have reading dysfunction. The second part of the model, labeled complex, provides a more extensive diagnostic and management approach. The validity of the approach is further illustrated in a series of 13 arbitrarily selected cases of reading dysfunction which are statistically analyzed. Robust correlations are found among different tests of visual-motor skills (Bender, Test of Visual Analysis Skills), a test of short-term memory (Getman-Henderson-Marcus Test of Visual Recall), and reading decoding. Modest correlation is also found between a test of auditory perception, The Test of Auditory Analysis Skills (TAAS) and reading decoding. Direct testing for dyslexia using the Dyslexia Determination Test illustrates that not all those with reading dysfunction are dyslexic.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1993

Visual symptoms and reading performance.

Clinical observation indicates that visual asthenopic symptoms are frequently associated with reading for long periods of time. We investigated the relation between visual symptoms and standard measures of reading performance in 78 university students. The number of asthenopic complaints increased during the reading phase of the experiment and decreased during the relaxation phase. Overall, a weak but significant negative correlation was found between number of symptoms and reading rate on the Nelson-Denny reading test. The most symptomatic subjects scored lower on vocabulary and comprehension than the least asthenopic subjects. A limited retrospective analysis revealed no reading performance differences between subjects having normal binocular vision and those showing a minimum binocular dysfunction; however, the dysfunctional subjects reported more visual symptoms. This study suggests that visual symptoms are a factor in reducing reading performance, particularly in very symptomatic individuals.

Adult↗
PubMed1998

Location and stability of a newly established eccentric retinal locus suitable for reading, achieved through training of patients with a dense central scotoma.

Six patients, median age 71 years, with a dense central scotoma in one eye and a median visual acuity of 0.06 (20/330) in the same eye, were all (100%) shown by means of fundus photography including a fixation target to preferably use an unfavorable retinal locus for fixation, i.e., within the lesion (scotoma). None of the patients was able to read novel text with the affected eye. A computer and video display system were used to determine the most suitable area above or below the visual field scotoma (below or above the retinal lesion) for reading and the magnification needed at this eccentricity. The same setup was also used for an introductory training in reading single words as well as scrolled text with the aim of establishing a preferred retinal locus (PRL) at a favorable, eccentric position, the trained retinal locus (TRL). Thereafter, the patients were provided with strong positive lenses (median power, 40 D) for reading printed text at a very short reading distance (median, 2.5 cm), first single words, above and below which help lines were printed to facilitate eccentric fixation, and finally, novel text. The total training time was 4 to 5 h. Thereafter, fundus photography showed that five of the patients (83%) used their TRL as their PRL. Reading speed was 71 words per minute (median). Our results seem to indicate that an eccentric PRL favorable for effective reading can be established through training and that a fairly low number of training sessions is required.

Aged↗
PubMed2000

The limitations imposed on reading by low vision aids.

INTRODUCTION: The changes that occur in the reading eye movements of normally sighted readers were measured as they used hand magnifiers to identify how these devices contribute to the slow reading of visually-impaired patients. METHODS: Subjects inexperienced in magnifier use read texts containing two sizes of print, using hand magnifiers of two different powers, held at two different eye-to-magnifier distances. The effect of magnification (up to 13.5x) and field-of-view (FOV) (2-45 characters) could be assessed independently. RESULTS: Reading speed decreased with increasing magnification because the size of the saccades did not increase in proportion to the magnification: for a given level of magnification, decreasing the FOV and decreasing the viewing distance both reduce the size of the saccades even further. The overall reading speed is only slowed significantly when the FOV restriction is extreme (two characters' width). CONCLUSIONS: Two mechanisms seem to be used spontaneously by normally sighted readers to mitigate the limitation of reading speed created by the shortened saccades: head movement in the direction of reading and retinal image slip during fixation.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Predictors of reading skill development in children with early cochlear implantation.

OBJECTIVE: The present study sought to document the word reading and comprehension levels attained by children who were implanted by 5 yr of age. It was hypothesized that the improved speech perception abilities acquired with cochlear implantation would promote phonological coding skills and facilitate the acquisition of beginning reading skills. DESIGN: Three subtests from diagnostic reading assessment batteries standardized on hearing children were administered to 181 children between 8 yr 0 mo and 9 yr 11 mo of age who had 4 to 6 yr of implant experience. In addition, a battery of processing measures was administered including a lexical decision task, a rhyme task and the digit span subtest of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children. RESULTS: Over half of the children scored within the average range for their age compared with the normative data for hearing children. Reading competence was associated with higher nonverbal intelligence, higher family socio-economic status, female gender and later onset of deafness (between birth and 36 mo). After variance due to these child and family characteristics was removed, reading competence was associated with mainstream educational placement, use of an updated implant speech processor with a wide dynamic range, and speech processing characteristics that included longer memory span and use of phonological coding strategies. Reading outcome was most highly predicted by linguistic competence and, secondarily, by speech production skill. CONCLUSION: Children who experience severe to profound deafness early in their development have a better prognosis for normal literacy development than ever before. To the extent that use of a cochlear implant is associated with greater use of phonological coding strategies for decoding print, longer working memory spans for short-term storage of phonemes, words and sentences and accelerated language development for reading comprehension, it should have a facilitative effect on the acquisition of literacy.

Canada↗
PubMed2003

Early phonological skills as a predictor of reading acquisition: a follow-up study from kindergarten to the middle of grade 2.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the power of early measures of phonological skills (phonemic awareness, rapid naming, short-term memory) in predicting later reading skills at various points of time. About 70 children were followed from the end of kindergarten to the middle of grade 2. Correlation analyses were performed as well as a linear growth curve analyses. In the traditional regression analysis, phonemic awareness in kindergarten explained about 27% of the variance in word reading six months later and about 9.5% of the variance at the end of grade 1. Even when prior level of reading skill was included in the predictive equation, a significant amount of variance was still explained by phonemic awareness. The other predictor variables did not explain any variance in word reading, and phonemic awareness did not predict any variance in reading skills in grade 2. When using sentence reading as the dependent variable, phonemic awareness explained about 16% of unique variance after six months, and about 13% of the variance in the middle of grade 2. Similarly, when employing growth curve analysis, phonemic awareness was the only phonological factor that accounted for significant variance in the word reading slope, explaining about 25% of its variance, whereas naming and short-term memory did not explain any unique variance. The lack of predictive power of phonemic awareness on the sentence b-slope is assumed to be caused by unreliable sentence scores in kindergarten.

Awareness↗
PubMed2002

The long-term significance of teacher-rated hyperactivity and reading ability in childhood: findings from two longitudinal studies.

BACKGROUND: The aims of this study were twofold: first, to examine behavioural and academic outcomes of children with hyperactivity, using data from two longitudinal studies; and second, to examine comparable psychosocial outcomes for children with early reading difficulties. METHODS: Measures of teacher-rated persistent hyperactivity, and reading ability obtained during early primary school were available for children from the Australian Temperament Project and the Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study. Both samples were followed up to assess behavioural and academic outcomes during the adolescent and early adult years. Family background, antisocial behaviour and literacy were controlled in the first set of analyses to examine the influence of early hyperactivity. RESULTS: There were strong linear relationships between early hyperactivity and later adverse outcomes. Adjustment for other childhood variables suggested that early hyperactivity was associated with continuing school difficulties, problems with attention and poor reading in adolescence. Early reading difficulties, after controlling for early hyperactivity, predicted continuing reading problems in high school and leaving school with no qualifications. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that there are dual pathways from early inattentive behaviours to later inattention and reading problems, and from early reading difficulties to substantial impairments in later academic outcomes.

Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity↗
PubMed1986

Automaticity, retrieval processes, and reading: a longitudinal study in average and impaired readers.

In this longitudinal investigation, the development of word-retrieval speed and its relationship to reading was studied in 72 average and 11 severely impaired readers in the kindergarten to grade 2 period (5-8 years). Subjects received a battery of 3 reading measures and 4 continuous naming tests with varied stimulus requirements. Results indicated that the relationship of retrieval speed to reading is a function of development and the correspondence between higher- and lower-level processes in the specific retrieval and reading measures. As automaticity in retrieval developed in average readers, naming-speed/reading relationships moved from strong, general predictions to highly differentiated ones. The strongest correlations were between naming speed for graphological stimuli and lower-level reading tasks. Impaired readers performed slower than average readers on all naming measures across all years, particularly on graphological symbols. 3 dyslexic subgroups emerged: the largest was globally impaired across all naming rate and reading tasks; 2 smaller subgroups had early specific, retrieval-rate deficits and dissociated reading deficits.

Child↗
PubMed2005

Phoneme manipulation not onset-rime manipulation ability is a unique predictor of early reading.

BACKGROUND: Phonological awareness is known to be an excellent predictor of later reading acquisition. It remains unclear, however, whether phoneme manipulation alone best explains this association or whether an additional direct contribution of onset-rime awareness is predictive. This issue is explored here. METHOD: A longitudinal study is reported predicting national test and teacher-assessed performance of 351 children aged 7 from phonological awareness measures, pupil baseline attainment and background measures at age 5. RESULTS: Explicit phoneme manipulation skills at age 5 correlated most strongly with literacy skills at age 5. Phoneme manipulation at age 5 predicted all four reading measures taken at age 7 after pupil background, baseline data and onset-rime awareness were controlled in regression analyses. Onset-rime manipulation did not predict reading at 7 in parallel analyses. After controlling for initial reading at age 5, phoneme manipulation still predicted reading comprehension, and teacher-assessed reading and writing at age 7. CONCLUSIONS: Results support the existence of a route from phoneme manipulation, but not an additional direct route from explicit onset-rime manipulation at 5, to reading at 7. Practically, findings show that professionals can augment baseline and pupil background data with phoneme manipulation screening in the early identification of learning needs.

Aptitude↗
PubMed2006

The effect of font and line width on reading speed in people with mild to moderate vision loss.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of print size, typeface, and line width on reading speed in readers with mild to moderate sight problems. METHODS: A total of 43 patients, most of whom had mild cataract or glaucoma with acuity 6/30 or better (median age = 72; range = 24-88 years), read aloud a selection of texts presented randomly in four sizes (10, 12, 14 and 16 point), for each of four typefaces [Foundry Form Sans (FFS), Helvetica (HV), Tiresias PCfont (TPC), Times New Roman (TNR)] at a standard line width of 70 characters and a viewing distance of 40 cm. A subset of letter sizes and typefaces were tested at two additional line widths (35, 90). RESULTS: As expected, reading speed increased with print size from a median of 144 words min(-1) for 10-point text to 163 words min(-1) for 16-point text (repeated measures anova, p < 0.0001). There was also a significant effect of typeface with TPC being read about 8 words min(-1) faster, on average, than the other fonts (159 words min(-1) for TPC vs 151 words min(-1) for the other fonts, p < 0.0001). However fonts of the same nominal point size were not equivalent in actual size. When adjusted for the actual horizontal and vertical space occupied, the advantage of TPC was eliminated. There was no effect of line width (p > 0.3). Data from the present study were extrapolated to the general population over age 65. This extrapolation indicated that increasing minimum print size from 10 points to 16 points would increase the proportion of the population able to read fluently (>85 words min(-1)) from 88.0% to 94.4%. CONCLUSION: This study shows that line width and typeface have little influence on reading speed in people with mild to moderate sight problems. Increasing the minimum recommended print size from 10 points to 14 or 16 points would significantly increase the proportion of the population able to read fluently.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1995

Ictal HMPAO-single photon emission computed tomography findings in reading epilepsy in a Japanese boy.

Reading epilepsy is rare. We report a 14-year-old right-handed Japanese boy who had had jaw jerking only while reading since age 12 years. The episodes occurred every time he read an English textbook and sometimes during prolonged reading of a Japanese textbook. The jaw jerking evolved to generalized tonic-clonic seizures (GTCS) on only two occasions during prolonged reading aloud. Routine EEGs showed no abnormality. After a few minutes of reading, however, the EEG showed bilateral 2-Hz, 150-microV spike-wave complexes with left frontotemporal accentuation, accompanied by jaw jerking. Ictal single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) with [99Tc]hexamethylpropylene amine oxime (HMPAO) showed focal hyperperfusion of the frontal lobes bilaterally and of the left temporal area. Interictal SPECT and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) were normal. The combination of valproate (VPA) and clonazepam (CZP) almost eliminated his symptoms. Ictal SPECT is a useful technique for seizure localization in reading epilepsy.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

The effects of coloured light filter overlays on reading rates in age-related macular degeneration.

PURPOSE: To determine the effect of coloured light filter overlays on reading rates for people with age-related macular degeneration (AMD). METHOD: Using a prospective clinical trial design, we examined the null hypothesis that coloured light filter overlays do not improve reading rates in AMD when compared to a clear filter. Reading rates for 12 subjects with non-exudative AMD, associated with a relative scotoma and central fixation (mean age 81 years, SD 5.07 years) were determined using the Rate of Reading Test (printed, nonsense, lower case sans serif, stationary text) with 10 different, coloured light filter overlays (Intuitive Overlays); figures in brackets are percentage transmission values); rose (78%), pink (78%), purple (67%), aqua (81%), blue (74%), lime-green (86%), mint-green (85%), yellow (93%), orange (83%) and grey (71%). A clear overlay (Roscolene # 00) (360 cdm-2) with 100% transmittance was used as a control. RESULTS: Anova indicated that there was no statistically significant difference in reading rates with the coloured light filter overlays compared to the clear filter. Furthermore, chi-squared analysis indicated that the rose, purple and blue filters had a significantly poorer overall ranking in terms of reading rates compared to the other coloured and clear light filters. CONCLUSION: Coloured light filter overlays are unlikely to provide a clinically significant improvement in reading rates for people with non-exudative AMD associated with a relative scotoma and central fixation.

Aged↗
PubMed1992

Beginning reading with phonology.

Seymour & Elder (1986) investigated the reading of children in the first year of school and suggested that the first stage of learning to read shows little involvement of assembled phonology. The present study examines processes involved in the reading-aloud and printed-word comprehension of children in the second year of school. Use of assembled phonology was evident in the children's reading-aloud responses, and proficiency in its use was related to reading ability. Printed-word comprehension appeared to involve prior retrieval of a phonological code for less frequent words. Similarities between the processing systems for reading used by these children and by skilled readers were discussed, and related to the computational model of reading development proposed by Seidenberg & McClelland (1989).

Child↗