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PubMed1995

Unconscious priming of association judgments.

Participants judged whether pairs of target words were associated or not-associated in meaning (association judgment task). Target pairs were preceded by a brief (200 ms) related or unrelated (prime) word presented to the nondominant eye. Each participant performed 2 blocks of association judgment task trials: 1 with primes that were legible, and 1 with primes that were masked by a pattern simultaneously presented to the dominant eye. Across 2 experiments, significantly larger masked priming effects were observed for participants who could not detect priming words (low-d' participants) than for participants who could partially see priming words (high-d' participants). This result suggests that undetectable masked primes can activate word meaning and that conscious attempts to process masked primes may inhibit unconscious activation. Additionally, evidence is presented that supports claims that spreading activation is the crucial mechanism responsible for unconscious priming.

Eye Movements↗
PubMed1995

Belief revision in children: serial judgment in social cognition and decision-making domains.

Belief revision in 5- to 9-year-olds was studied with an information integration approach. In the social task, children judged niceness of story children, having heard about their good and bad deeds. In the decision task, of parallel structure, they judged what proportion of a group of turtles' catch of starfish was red or gold. In both tasks, 4-5 samples were presented successively, with children adjusting their judgment after each. All ages took sample composition into account, and judgments could be described by a serial integration model previously supported for adults. Recency effects were found as well and were stronger for younger children and in the social task. Further model analysis showed, however, that much of this recency was short-lived and that a stable opinion, to which early and later informers contributed more evenly, developed underneath. Overall, similar processes may underlie serial belief formation across the age range and across domains.

Attention↗
PubMed1999

Dissociating judgment from response processes in statement verification: the effects of experience on each component.

This research used the stochastic judgment model of statement verification to demonstrate a dissociation between judgment and response processes and investigated hypotheses about the effects of practice on each component. Data from respondents judging statements as true or false under various payoffs supported the dissociation and the following conclusions: Their ability to discriminate true from false depended on knowledge domain but not on payoffs. Experience with the domain did not improve this ability but did decrease the trial-by-trial confidence variability associated with memory search. Practice in a different domain had no such effect. Response criteria depended only on payoffs and experience. Criterion variability decreased with cumulative practice over domains. Most respondents had a bias to say "true" under symmetric payoffs, which did not dissipate with experience. Theoretical implications of the results are discussed.

Attention↗
PubMed1999

The contribution of recollection and familiarity to recognition and source-memory judgments: a formal dual-process model and an analysis of receiver operating characteristics.

A formal dual-process model that assumes that memory judgments can be based on a threshold recollection process and a signal-detection-based familiarity process is proposed to account for both recognition and source-memory performance. The model was tested in 4 experiments by examining recognition and source-memory receiver operating characteristics (ROCs). In agreement with the predictions of the model, recognition and source memory dissociated in certain conditions. Recognition ROCs were curvilinear in probability space and relatively linear in z-space, as expected if recollection and familiarity contributed to performance. In contrast, source ROCs typically were linear and exhibited a pronounced U shape in z-space, as expected if performance primarily relied on recollection. However, in conditions in which familiarity was clearly indicative of an item's source, the source ROC became curvilinear, suggesting that participants could use familiarity as a basis for source judgments. Several alternative models, including the unequal-variance signal-detection model, were found to be inconsistent with the ROC data.

Cognition↗
PubMed1983

Probing Proctor's priming principle: the effect of simultaneous and sequential presentation on same-different judgments.

Three explanations (internal noise, priming, relative frequency) of the fast-same effect were examined. The internal-noise principle, which predicts more errors as well as faster correct judgments on same pairs, was consistently confirmed even with sequential presentation. More elusive was priming, that is, the facilitation of encoding from letter repetition with sequential presentation. Priming was inhibited by the presence of intertrial letter repetition. The error data indicated that priming involves an increased efficiency in encoding (d'), as Proctor claimed, rather than a criterion shift (beta), as Krueger and Shapiro claimed. An alternative to the priming explanation, based on the greater susceptibility of simultaneous presentation to analytical processing, was tested and disconfirmed. Stimulus-set size did not affect the speed advantage for same pairs, thus disconfirming the relative-frequency explanation, according to which same judgments are faster because typically there are fewer unique same than different pairs.

Cues↗
PubMed1999

Perceptual fluency as a cue for recognition judgments in amnesia.

This study investigated the extent to which amnesic patients use fluency of perceptual identification as a cue for recognition. Perceptual fluency was measured by having participants gradually unmask words before making recognition judgments. In Experiment 1, familiarity was the only possible basis for recognition because no words had been presented in the study phase. In Experiment 2, recollection provided an alternative basis for recognition because words had appeared in the study phase. Amnesic patients were as likely as normal controls to use perceptual fluency as a cue for recognition in Experiment 1 but were more likely than controls to do so in Experiment 2. For both groups, perceptual fluency affected judgments for studied and unstudied items to the same extent in Experiment 2. These findings suggest that amnesic patients do use perceptual fluency cues, but reliance on perceptual fluency does not necessarily elevate recognition accuracy.

Amnesia↗
PubMed2004

Reality compared with its alternatives: age differences in judgments of regret and relief.

Three experiments examined developmental change in children's understanding of regret and relief, two second-order emotions whose quality depends on a comparison between reality and "what might have been." In Experiment 1, participants 7 years of age and older, but not 5-year-olds, made regret-related emotion-response judgments that took into account a comparison of reality with its alternatives. In Experiment 2, 5-year-olds judged that an individual would feel better, rather than worse, when a counterfactual outcome was better than what actually occurred (the opposite of the pattern found with older children and adults). Experiment 3 focused on the understanding of relief. In contrast to the findings from Experiment I, the 7-year-olds in Experiment 3 made their judgments solely on the basis of what actually occurred.

Adult↗
PubMed1998

The impact of ratee's disability on performance judgments and choice as partner: the role of disability-job fit stereotypes and interdependence of rewards.

An experiment assessed the impact of disability-job fit stereotypes and reward interdependence on personnel judgments about persons with disabilities. Students (N = 87) evaluated 3 confederates. The experiment varied disability of the target confederate (dyslexia vs. nondisabled), task, and dependence of rater rewards on partner performance. Two disability-task combinations represented stereotypical poor fit and good fit. Dependent variables were performance evaluations, performance expectations, and ranking of target as a partner. There was negative bias against the confederate with dyslexia in poor-fit conditions. In the interdependent reward condition, there was a negative main effect for disability, regardless of fit. No effects for disability were found on performance ratings or expectations. Results indicate the need to consider disability-job fit stereotypes and consequences to raters when assessing the impact of disability on personnel judgments.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Note-taking in the employment interview: effects on recall and judgments.

Although note-taking in the employment interview is highly recommended, little research has examined its effects. This study investigated the effects of note-taking styles, review of the notes, and content of the notes on participants' cued recall of information and decisions made from videotaped employment interviews. Note-taking increased recall accuracy but not judgment accuracy. Being able to review notes resulted in increased judgment accuracy for those taking conventional-style notes. The content of the notes also had important implications for conventional note-takers, suggesting some benefits of recording notes using the key-points style. The findings suggest that the act of note-taking may be more important for memory and legal reasons than for improving the decisions made by interviewers.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Unilateral concessions from the other party: concession behavior, attributions, and negotiation judgments.

This article examines the effects of the other party's concession behavior on a negotiator's satisfaction and judgments. The timing of the concessions (immediate, gradual, delayed) and the justifications provided by the other party (negotiator skill vs. external constraints) were manipulated using a scenario method (Study 1) and a role-playing experiment (Study 2). Study 1 showed that concession timing influenced valuation of the object and satisfaction with the partner and the outcome. Justifications about why the concession was made interacted with concession timing to influence participants' attributions. Participants' attributions for why the concession was actually made, in turn, had a main effect on satisfaction and judgments of the negotiation. Study 2 replicated some, but not all, of these findings.

Female↗
PubMed2006

Interactive effects of situational judgment effectiveness and proactive personality on work perceptions and work outcomes.

This study was based on a sample of 139 employees. The results support the hypothesis that proactive personality (PAP) predicts work perceptions (procedural justice perception, perceived supervisor support, and social integration) and work outcomes (job satisfaction, affective organizational commitment, and job performance) positively among individuals with high situational judgment effectiveness (SJE) but negatively among those with low SJE. The findings on the disordinal SJE = PAP interaction effects show that high levels of PAP may be either adaptive or maladaptive, depending on the individual's level of SJE, and these findings caution against direct interpretations of bivariate associations between PAP and work-relevant criteria. Limitations and implications of the study as well as future research directions on the study of PAP and situational judgment are discussed.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Information quantity and quality affect the realistic accuracy of personality judgment.

Triads of unacquainted college students interacted in 1 of 5 experimental conditions that manipulated information quantity (amount of information) and information quality (relevance of information to personality), and they then made judgments of each others' personalities. To determine accuracy, the authors compared the ratings of each judge to a broad-based accuracy criterion composed of personality ratings from 3 types of knowledgeable informants (the self, real-life acquaintances, and clinician-interviewers). Results supported the hypothesis that information quantity and quality would be positively related to objective knowledge about the targets and realistic accuracy. Interjudge consensus and self-other agreement followed a similar pattern. These findings are consistent with expectations based on models of the process of accurate judgment (D. C. Funder, 1995, 1999) and consensus (D. A. Kenny, 1994).

Adult↗
PubMed1995

On the accuracy of personality judgment: a realistic approach.

The "accuracy paradigm" for the study of personality judgment provides an important, new complement to the "error paradigm" that dominated this area of research for almost 2 decades. The present article introduces a specific approach within the accuracy paradigm called the Realistic Accuracy Model (RAM). RAM begins with the assumption that personality traits are real attributes of individuals. This assumption entails the use of a broad array of criteria for the evaluation of personality judgment and leads to a model that describes accuracy as a function of the availability, detection, and utilization of relevant behavioral cues. RAM provides a common explanation for basic moderators of accuracy, sheds light on how these moderators interact, and outlines a research agenda that includes the reintegration of the study of error with the study of accuracy.

Humans↗
PubMed2002

Social functionalist frameworks for judgment and choice: intuitive politicians, theologians, and prosecutors.

Research on judgment and choice has been dominated by functionalist assumptions that depict people as either intuitive scientists animated by epistemic goals or intuitive economists animated by utilitarian ones. This article identifies 3 alternative social functionalist starting points for inquiry: people as pragmatic politicians trying to cope with accountability demands from key constituencies in their lives, principled theologians trying to protect sacred values from secular encroachments, and prudent prosecutors trying to enforce social norms. Each functionalist framework stimulates middle-range theories that specify (a) cognitive-affective-behavioral strategies of coping with adaptive challenges and (b) the implications of these coping strategies for identifying empirical and normative boundary conditions on judgmental tendencies classified as errors or biases within the dominant research programs.

Choice Behavior↗
PubMed2005

A model for stochastic drift in memory strength to account for judgments of learning.

Previous research has shown that judgments of learning (JOLs) made immediately after encoding have a low correlation with actual cued-recall performance, whereas the correlation is high for delayed judgments. In this article, the authors propose a formal theory describing the stochastic drift of memory strength over the retention interval to account for the delayed-JOL effect. This is done by first decomposing the aggregated memory strength into exponential functions with slow and fast memory traces. The mean aggregated memory strength shows power-function forgetting curves. The drift of the memory strength is large for immediate JOLs (causing a low predictability) and weak for delayed JOLs (causing a high predictability). Consistent with empirical data, the model makes a novel prediction of JOL asymmetry, or that immediate weak JOLs are more predictive of future performance than are immediate strong JOLs. The JOL distributions for immediate and delayed JOLs are also accounted for.

Cues↗
PubMed2003

On the relative speed account of number-size interference in comparative judgments of numerals.

Humans show systematic congruency effects due to irrelevant variations of the numerical value or the physical size of digits in judgments about either of these 2 attributes alone. According to influential models (e.g., J. Tzelgov, J. Meyer, & A. Henik, 1992), these effects are characterized by genuine asymmetries of size and number processing not accounted for by simple relative speed considerations, whereas some recent work (e.g., A. Pansky & D. Algom, 1999) partly challenges this view. This article presents 2 qualitative gradient-based predictions made by relative speed models and a diffusion-based implementation of the relative speed view to quantitatively account for response times and error rates in comparative judgments of digits. The results of 2 experiments using a completely task-symmetric design are in accord with these detailed predictions; they are also consistent with the view that both number and size are converted into magnitude representations of similar structure.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Exemplar effects in categorization and multiple-cue judgment.

Categorization and multiple-cue judgment are similar tasks, but the influential models in the two areas are different in terms of the computations, processes, and neural substrates that they imply. In categorization, exemplar memory is often emphasized, whereas multiple-cue judgment generally is interpreted in terms of integration of cues that have been abstracted in training. In 3 experiments the authors investigated whether these conclusions derive from genuine differences in the processes or are accidental to the different research methods. The results revealed large individual differences and a shift from exemplar memory to cue abstraction when the criterion is changed from a binary to a continuous variable, especially for a probabilistic criterion. People appear to switch between qualitatively distinct processes in the 2 tasks.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Depressive realism and outcome density bias in contingency judgments: the effect of the context and intertrial interval.

The perception of the effectiveness of instrumental actions is influenced by depressed mood. Depressive realism (DR) is the claim that depressed people are particularly accurate in evaluating instrumentality. In two experiments, the authors tested the DR hypothesis using an action-outcome contingency judgment task. DR effects were a function of intertrial interval length and outcome density, suggesting that depressed mood is accompanied by reduced contextual processing rather than increased judgment accuracy. The DR effect was observed only when participants were exposed to extended periods in which no actions or outcomes occurred. This implies that DR may result from an impairment in contextual processing rather than accurate but negative expectations. Therefore, DR is consistent with a cognitive distortion view of depression.

Adult↗