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PubMed1983

Restrictions of developmental capacities in the dorsal root ganglia during the course of development.

By grafting ganglia from embryonic quails into the neural crest migration pathway of 2-day chick embryos, it was previously demonstrated that all type of ganglia possess more developmental potentialities than those normally expressed in the normal course of development. Namely autonomic neurones with catecholamine and adrenomedullary cells can be obtained from grafted spinal ganglia. The latter also yield sensory neurons to the host dorsal root ganglia (DRG) but only if they are taken from the donor before 8 days of incubation. In the present article we show that the capacity to differentiate sensory neurons in back-transplantation experiments can be correlated with the presence in the donor DRG of cycling neuronal precursors. Once all the neurons have been withdrawn from the cell cycle - an event which occurs first in the mediodorsal and then in the lateroventral area of the ganglion - the DRG cell population gives rise exclusively to autonomic ganglion cells in the host. It is concluded that in the conditions of the back-transplantation experiments, the postmitotic neurons contained in the donor ganglion do not survive. Therefore, the neurons and paraganglion cells which differentiate in the host arise from still undifferentiated precursor cells. This indicates that besides sensory neuron precursors the embryonic DRG cell population also contains precursor cells for the autonomic differentiation pathway.

Adrenal Medulla↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Basal ganglia: anatomy, pathology, and imaging characteristics.

Several cases of bilateral basal ganglia lesions seen in magnetic resonance imaging initiated a review of the anatomy, pathology, and differential diagnoses of this region. There are a variety of disease entities that present as symmetrical basal ganglia abnormalities. Although these findings may not indicate a specific diagnosis, knowledge of the characteristics of diseases that affect this area can limit the differential considerations. Clinical information is often essential for narrowing the possible pathology that can be found here. The purpose of this article is to review the anatomy of the basal ganglia, the pathologies, clinical histories, and imaging characteristics that can cause bilateral basal ganglia lesions.

Basal Ganglia↗
PubMed1999

Alternative exon splicing of cyclic AMP response element-binding protein in peripheral sensory and sympathetic ganglia of the rat.

Alternative splicing patterns of cyclic AMP response element-binding protein (CREB) in dorsal root ganglia, lumbar sympathetic ganglia and several peripheral tissues of the rat have been investigated by an exon-flanking polymerase chain reaction strategy. A series of RT-PCR with primer pairs flanking all possible alternative splicing sites (corresponding to a genomic region with at least one full exon and two flanking introns) has revealed multiple tissue specific splice variants. These include some novel transcripts that lack the phosphorylation site and part of the leucine zipper region which is crucial for dimerization and DNA binding. Some isoforms previously reported as testis-specific were also detected in rat peripheral ganglia and other tissues. Notably, splicing patterns are specific for some regions. Some of the splice variants indicate inhibitory functions due to lacking phosphorylation sites or partially missing DNA-binding or leucine zipper domains. These findings suggest a complex expression and functional regulation of CREB in peripheral tissues including dorsal root and sympathetic ganglia.

Alternative Splicing↗
PubMed2001

A comparative study of three cranial sensory ganglia projecting into the oral cavity: in situ hybridization analyses of neurotrophin receptors and thermosensitive cation channels.

Peripheral cranial sensory nerves projecting into the oral cavity receive food intake stimuli and transmit sensory signals to the central nervous system. To describe and compare the features of the cranial sensory ganglia that innervate the oral cavity, i.e., the trigeminal, petrosal, and geniculate ganglia (TG, PG, and GG, respectively), in situ hybridization was conducted using riboprobes for neurotrophin receptors (TrkA, TrkB, and TrkC), a neurotransmitter (substance P), and ion channels important for thermosensation (VR1 and TREK-1). In TG, all in six probes yielded positive signals to various extent in intensity and frequency. In addition, a strong correlation between the expression of VR1 and those of TrkA and substance P was observed as in the case of the dorsal root ganglia. In PG, positive signals to all six probes were also detected, and the correlation of expression was similar to that shown by TG. On the other hand, most cells in GG were positive to the TrkB probe, and a small number of cells were positive to the TrkC probe, but no significant signal was observed for the other four probes. These results indicate that TG and PG consist of cells that are heterogeneous in terms of neurotrophin requirement and somatosensory functions, and that GG seems to consist mainly of a homogeneous cell type, gustatory neurons. In conclusion, TG, PG, and GG, show gene expression characteristics intrinsic to the three ganglia. It is also concluded that TG and a portion of PG project several types of somatosensory nerves. This is consistent with the finding that GG and a portion of PG project gustatory nerves.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Expression of adenosine A2a receptor gene in rat dorsal root and autonomic ganglia.

The adenosine A2a receptors (A2aR) play an important role in the purinergic mediated neuromodulation. The presence of A2aR in the brain is well established. In contrast, little is known about their expression in the periphery. The purpose of this study was to investigate the expression of A2aR gene in the autonomic (otic, sphenopalatine, ciliary, cervical superior ganglia and carotid body) and in the dorsal root ganglia of normal rat. Hybridization histochemistry with S35-labelled radioactive oligonucleotide probes was used. An expression of A2aR gene was found in the large neuronal cells of the rat dorsal root ganglia. The satellite cells showed no expression of A2aR gene. In the superior cervical ganglion, isolated ganglion cells expressed A2aR. In the carotid body clusters of cells with a strong A2aR gene expression were found. In contrast, the ciliary and otic ganglia did not expressed A2aR gene, and only few small sized A2aR expressing cells were demonstrated in the sphenopalatine ganglion. The discrete distribution of A2aR gene expression in the peripheral nervous system speaks for a role of this receptor in the purinergic modulation of sensory information as well as in the sympathetic nervous system.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Neuropathological characteristics and alteration of the dopamine D2 receptor in hypoxic-ischemic basal ganglia necrosis.

The neuropathological characteristics and alteration of the dopamine D2 receptor (D2R) were investigated in 27 cases of hypoxic-ischemic basal ganglia necrosis (BGN) by means of neuropathological and immunohistochemical methods. Perinatal hypoxic-ischemic BGN manifested neuronal karyorrhexis as well as eosinophilia, karyorrhexis being more predominant in preterm infants and eosinophilia more predominant in full-term infants. Immunoreactivity to D2R was detected in the cytoplasm and dendrites of small and large neurons in the basal ganglia, and increased with neuronal maturation during the late gestational period in normal human basal ganglia. The number of D2R-positive neurons was smaller in all cases of acute BGN than that in controls, the areas of decreased D2R-positive neurons corresponding to the damaged regions observed on HE staining. Furthermore, neurons showed high expression of D2R in a few cases of remote BGN, suggesting some plasticity as to the recovery of D2R. Thus, the neuropathological characteristics of perinatal hypoxic-ischemic BGN may be related to neuronal maturation during different developmental stages in each region, and D2R development may play a role in the basal ganglia vulnerability to hypoxic-ischemia.

Basal Ganglia↗
PubMed1987

Anatomy and pathology of the basal ganglia.

Neurotransmitters of the basal ganglia are of three types: I, amino acids; II, amines; and III, peptides. The amino acids generally act ionotropically while the amines and peptides generally act metabotropically. There are many examples of neurotransmitter coexistence in basal ganglia neurons. Diseases of the basal ganglia are characterized by selective neuronal degeneration. Lesions of the caudate, putamen, subthalamus and substantia nigra pars compacta occur, respectively, in chorea, dystonia, hemiballismus and parkinsonism. The differing signs and symptoms of these diseases constitute strong evidence of the functions of these various nuclei. Basal ganglia diseases can be of genetic origin, as in Huntington's chorea and Wilson's disease, of infectious origin as in Sydenham's chorea and postencephalitic parkinsonism, or of toxic origin as in MPTP poisoning. Regardless of the etiology, the pathogenesis is often regionally concentrated for reasons that are poorly understood. From studies on Parkinson and Huntington disease brains, evidence is presented that a common feature may be the expression of HLA-DR antigen on reactive microglia in the region where pathological neuronal dropout is occurring.

Basal Ganglia↗
PubMed1998

GABA- and glutamate-immunoreactivity in sensory ganglia of cat: a quantitative analysis.

Several amino acids may function as neurotransmitters in the nervous system. The potential role of glutamate (Glu) and aspartate in excitatory responses was demonstrated and it was established that GABA and glycine act as inhibitory agents. The present study aimed at investigating the availability of Glu and GABA in certain feline sensory ganglia, i.e. the trigeminal (TrG), nodose and dorsal root ganglia (DRG). A significant part of the neurons were GABA-positive (19.5% to 23.5%). These were large-sized neurons as well as small- to medium-sized ones. The intensity of immunostaining varied from weak to strong. GABA-containing neuronal fibres were seen in the neuropil and some of them surrounded unstained ganglionic cells. The Glu-immunoreactive (IR) neuronal perikarya in all the investigated ganglia were 63.6% to 66.4%. The majority of positive cells were small- to medium-sized, but large primary sensory neurons were also seen. There was no difference between the intensity of the reaction in the primary sensory and small neurons. Glu-IR neuronal fibres were seen in close apposition to immunopositive as well as immunonegative neurons. In conclusion, in the TrG, nodose and DRG, GABA and glutamate are involved in neurotransmission. There is a significant number of GABAergic neurons in the investigated sensory ganglia of the cat. The difference in the expression of these amino acids suggests that they can act not only as neurotransmitters but also as modulators of sensory information.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

The functions of the basal ganglia and the paradox of stereotaxic surgery in Parkinson's disease.

The basal ganglia play a role in controlling movement. The motor circuits within the striato-pallidal complex are thought to facilitate desired movement and inhibit unwanted movement through their influence via thalamus, mainly on precentral motor cortical regions. Lesions in the motor thalamus, or in the globus pallidus, therefore might be expected to impair voluntary movement. But stereotaxic lesions in patients with Parkinson's disease directed at the motor thalamus verified at autopsy, and lesions in the globus pallidus, which improve rigidity and tremor, apparently do not worsen parkinsonian hypokinesia and bradykinesia; nor do they regularly cause dyskinesias. Reasons for this discrepancy are reviewed. It is concluded that the motor circuits of the basal ganglia are part of a distributed motor system which can operate, albeit imperfectly, in the absence of striato-pallido-thalamo-cortical feedback. There may, however, be subtle defects in motor performance after thalamic and pallidal lesions which have escaped attention. Further consideration leads to two hypotheses concerning normal basal ganglia motor function. First, it seems most likely that it is a pause in firing of medial pallidal and substantia nigra reticulata neurons that, by disinhibition of thalamic targets, permits movements generated by cortical motor areas. An increase in firing of medial pallidal neurons, which so far has been the major focus of attention, may be more concerned with inhibition of unwanted movement. Secondly, we suggest that the basal ganglia play a particular role in motor control. A change in firing of medial pallidal neurons appears to occur too late to initiate a new movement. However, the motor circuit within the striato-pallidal system routinely receives a continuous delayed read-out of cortical motor activity and issues an output directed via thalamus mainly to premotor cortical regions. This may permit the routine automatic execution of sequences of movements generated in cortical motor areas. There is evidence that other regions of the striatum respond to significant external or internal cues as dictated by their cortical inputs, the significance being determined by memory, novelty, emotional and other contexts. We suggest that such events capture the attention of the non-motor striatum, which then interrupts the routine operation of the motor circuit, perhaps at the level of the medial pallidum and substantia nigra pars reticulata, to permit new cortical motor action.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Blood flow and autoregulation in somatic and autonomic ganglia. Comparison with sciatic nerve.

We studied blood flow rates along the sciatic nerve and in the superior cervical and L-5 dorsal root ganglia of rats at rest and during reductions and increases in mean arterial pressure induced by partial exsanguination or blood transfusion. Blood flow was measured by the tissue distribution of [14C]iodoantipyrine and autoradiography. At rest, blood flow did not vary along the peripheral nerve, but was two to three times greater in dorsal root and superior cervical ganglia. In peripheral nerve, blood flow increased with increases in blood pressure. In contrast, blood flow in dorsal root and sympathetic ganglia did not vary with changes in pressure. Thus, peripheral nerve cell bodies have greater blood flow than their axons; ganglion blood flow is autoregulated within the range of blood pressure tested. Nerve ganglia appear to be protected against ischaemic stress by autoregulation rather than by a blood flow "safety margin', as in peripheral nerve.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Normalized perfusion MRI to identify common areas of dysfunction: patients with basal ganglia neglect.

Perfusion-weighted imaging (PWI) is used to identify brain regions that are receiving enough blood supply to remain structurally intact, but not enough to function normally. Previous observations suggest that spatial neglect due to subcortical stroke can be explained by dysfunction of cortical areas rather than through the neuronal loss in the subcortical structures itself. The present study aimed to identify the dysfunctional cortical regions induced by basal ganglia stroke in patients with spatial neglect. In a patient group with stroke lesions centring on the basal ganglia, we examined the common area(s) of structurally intact but dysfunctional cortical tissue by using spatial normalization of PWI maps as well as symmetric voxel-wise inter-hemispheric comparisons. These new techniques allow comparison of the structurally intact but abnormally perfused areas of different individuals in the same stereotaxic space, and at the same time avoid problems due to regional perfusion differences and to possible observer-dependent biases. We found that strokes centring on the right basal ganglia which provoke spatial neglect induce abnormal perfusion in a circumscribed area of intact cortex that typically involves those three regions that have previously been described to provoke spatial neglect when damaged directly by cortical infarction: the superior temporal gyrus, the inferior parietal lobule and the inferior frontal gyrus. The data suggest that spatial neglect following a right basal ganglia lesion typically is caused by the dysfunction of (part of) these specific cortical areas.

Attention↗
PubMed2004

Acute bilateral basal ganglia lesions in patients with diabetic uremia: an FDG-PET study.

PURPOSE: Head CT and MRI show characteristic changes in the syndrome of acute bilateral basal ganglia lesions in patients with diabetic uremia. However, they do not provide further insight into the underlying pathophysiology. To further clarify the biologic mechanism of the syndrome, F-18 fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) positron emission tomography (PET) was used in 2 patients. METHODS: PET studies were performed in 2 diabetic uremic patients with acute movement disorders. The cerebral glucose metabolic rates in these 2 patients were compared with 11 normal age-matched controls. The images were further analyzed with statistical parametric mapping to identify regions of significant metabolic abnormality. RESULTS: The cases showed markedly reduced glucose metabolism in the bilateral basal ganglia, especially in the bilateral putamens, where the glucose uptake was nearly absent. CONCLUSIONS: FDG-PET correlates better with the clinical conditions and provides more pathophysiological information than head CT or MRI scans in bilateral basal ganglia lesions in patients with diabetic uremia. We propose that acute exacerbation of a long-term glucose utilization failure in the basal ganglia cells produced these lesions.

Acute Disease↗
PubMed1987

Immunohistochemistry and biosynthesis of N-acetylaspartylglutamate in spinal sensory ganglia.

N-Acetylaspartylglutamate (NAAG) is a nervous system-specific dipeptide which has been implicated in chemical neurotransmission. Antisera were prepared against NAAG in order to study its cellular distribution. When these antisera were applied to tissue sections of rat spinal sensory ganglia, NAAG-like immunoreactivity was detected within a subpopulation of relatively large neuronal cell bodies in cervical, lumbar, and thoracic ganglia. In order to confirm the presence of NAAG within these neurons, the dipeptide was extracted and purified from spinal ganglia using high-performance liquid chromatography and its composition confirmed by amino acid analysis. Further, the biosynthesis of NAAG was studied in vitro by following the incorporation of either [3H]glutamine or [3H]glutamate into the glutamate residue of the purified dipeptide. [3H]Aspartate was not incorporated efficiently into NAAG under these conditions, suggesting a precursor role for the large N-acetylaspartate pool. The incorporation of radiolabeled amino acids into newly synthesized NAAG by spinal sensory ganglia was not inhibited by incubation of the cells with anisomycin or cycloheximide at concentrations which significantly inhibited protein synthesis. These data suggest that NAAG is present in a subpopulation of primary afferent spinal neurons and that its biosynthesis is mediated by a dipeptide synthetase.

Amino Acids↗
PubMed2006

Abundance of triacylglycerols in ganglia and their depletion in diabetic mice: implications for the role of altered triacylglycerols in diabetic neuropathy.

Herein, we report the first study on the mass distribution and molecular species composition of abundant triacylglycerols (TAG) in ganglia. This study demonstrates five novel findings. First, unanticipated high levels of TAG were present in all examined ganglia from multiple species (e.g. mouse, rat and rabbit). Second, ganglial TAG mass content is location-dependent. Third, the TAG mass levels in ganglia are species-specific. Fourth, dorsal root ganglial TAG mass levels in streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice are dramatically depleted relative to those found in untreated control mice. Fifth, mouse ganglial TAG mass levels decrease with age although molecular species composition is not changed. Collectively, these results indicate that TAG is an important component of ganglia and may potentially contribute to pathological alterations in peripheral neuronal function in diabetic neuropathy.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1974

The long-term regulation of tyrosine hydroxylase activity in cultured sympathetic ganglia: role of ganglionic noradrenaline content.

1 An organ culture system is described for the in vitro maintenance of superior cervical sympathetic ganglia taken from mice of any age. The relation of tyrosine hydroxylase (T-OH) activity to ganglionic noradrenaline (NA) content has been investigated under various culture conditions.2 Depolarizing stimuli such as raised extracellular potassium and ouabain evoked increases of approximately 70% in the T-OH activity of cultured ganglia over a 48 h period. Exposure to a high concentration of potassium (high K(+)) for 30 min at the start of a 48 h culture was sufficient to elicit significant increases in T-OH activity.3 Depolarization-induced rises in T-OH activity were observed after culture in the presence or absence of nerve growth factor.4 The NA content of ganglia, cultured for 48 h in the presence of high K(+), ouabain, reserpine, clorgyline and alpha-methyl-p-tyrosine, showed no constant relation to their T-OH activity.5 Dibutyryl cyclic adenosine 3'-5'-monophosphate (dibutyryl cyclic AMP) mimicked high K(+) in its effect on ganglionic T-OH activity and NA content. Theophylline enhanced the potassium effects.6 Rises in the T-OH activity of ganglia cultured in the presence of high K(+) and dibutyryl cyclic AMP were abolished if the protein synthesis inhibitors cycloheximide or actinomycin D were present in the culture medium.7 It is concluded that the link between prolonged depolarization and rises in T-OH activity does not seem to depend upon changes in ganglionic NA content. In the intact animals, trans-synaptic modulation may take the form of a depolarization-induced rise in the cyclic AMP content of sympathetic ganglionic neurones leading to nuclear mediated synthesis of T-OH.

Acetylesterase↗
PubMed2006

[Basal ganglia calcification on computed tomography: clinical characteristics in 25 patients].

Twenty-five patients presenting basal ganglia calcification were assessed. This finding comprised 0.68% of all skull CT scan carried out during the period. Two patients were neurologically asymptomatic and 23 presented a variety neurological disorders--headache (7 patients), stroke (5 patients), extrapyramidal syndromes (2 patients), tumor (2 patients), epilepsy (1 patient), mental retardation (1 patient), dementia (1 patient), cranial trauma (1 patient), other neurological conditions (3 patients)--or were asymptomatic from the neurological point of view (2 patients). Findings in the CT scan other than the basal ganglia calcification were observed in 15 (60%) patients. There was a clinical-CT scan correlation in these cases but not in those in which the basal ganglia calcification was an isolated finding. This study highlights the fact that basal ganglia calcification is often a nonspecific finding on CT scan and that it may not be possible to establish a clinical-pathological correlation between them.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Relationship between obsessive-compulsive disorders and diseases affecting primarily the basal ganglia.

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) has been reported in association with some neurological diseases that affect the basal ganglia such as Tourette's syndrome, Sydenham's chorea, Parkinson's disease, and Huntington's disease. Furthermore, studies such as neuroimaging, suggest a role of the basal ganglia in the pathophysiology of OCD. The aim of this paper is to describe the association of OCD and several neurologic disorders affecting the basal ganglia, report the existing evidences of the role of the basal ganglia in the pathophysiology of OCD, and analyze the mechanisms probably involved in this pathophysiology.

Basal Ganglia↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Neurofibrillary tangles in the peripheral sympathetic ganglia of non-Alzheimer elderly individuals.

AIM AND METHODS: To clarify whether neurofibrillary tangle (NFT) formation in the peripheral nervous system is related to that in the central nervous system (CNS), we examined the sympathetic and spinal ganglia from 20 patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD), 8 with progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP), and 100 non-demented individuals, all older than 60 years of age. RESULTS: NFTs were found in the sympathetic ganglia in two elderly (72- and 84-year-old) individuals without AD pathology. Ultrastructurally, these NFTs were composed of paired helical filaments which showed positive immunohistochemical staining with antibodies against ubiquitin and phosphorylation-dependent and -independent epitopes of tau protein. They were identical to those observed in the CNS. No NFTs were detected in the sympathetic or spinal ganglia in AD and PSP patients. CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate that NFTs in the peripheral ganglia are uncommon and develop independently of the neurofibrillary pathology that occurs in the CNS.

Aged↗