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PubMed1997

Can you have your low-fat cake and eat it too? The role of fat-modified products.

The American public, along with the medical and scientific communities, has certain expectations about the consumption of fat-modified foods; specifically, that such consumption will result in positive health benefits for both the individual and the population. Initial attempts by consumers to reduce fat intake required elimination of favorite foods or substitution of those foods with less palatable offerings. The food industry now has developed more than 5,600 reduced-fat products of varying palatability. However, recent questions have arisen regarding the potential use and anticipated health benefits of these products. This commentary explores the underlying assumptions and expectations surrounding the use of fat-modified products, examines current usage rates of these products, and reviews the reported impact of these products on overall diet by relating these issues to two theoretic frameworks (Diffusion of Innovations and Stages of Change). Finally, some suggestions regarding realistic expectations for these products in the context of an overall diet are presented.

Diet, Fat-Restricted↗
PubMed1995

Replacement of dietary saturated fat with monounsaturated fat: effect on atherogenesis in cholesterol-fed rabbits clamped at the same plasma cholesterol level.

The aim was to compare the effect on atherogenesis of dietary monounsaturated and saturated fatty acids in cholesterol-clamped rabbits. To obtain an average plasma cholesterol concentration of 20 mmol/l in each rabbit during the 13-week cholesterol-feeding period, dietary cholesterol was adjusted weekly. The amount of fat fed daily was 10 g per rabbit in Expts A (n 23), C (n 36), and D (n 58) and 5 g per rabbit in Expt B (n 24). The source of monounsaturated fatty acids was olive oil in all four experiments. The source of saturated fatty acids was butter in Expt A, lard in Expt B, coconut oil in Expt C, and butter or lard in Expt D. Generally, olive oil-fed groups received more cholesterol and tended to have more cholesterol in VLDL and less in LDL compared with groups receiving saturated fat. Analysis of variance of the combined results of all four experiments showed that, in comparison with saturated fat, olive oil lowered aortic cholesterol by 13 (-9-30, 95% confidence interval) % in the aortic arch, and by 10 (-10-26) % in the thoracic aorta, which was not significant. In the comparison with olive oil, no differences in effects on aortic cholesterol content were detected between butter, lard and coconut oil. These findings do not support the view that replacement of dietary saturated fat with olive oil has a major impact on the development of atherosclerosis in addition to that accounted for by changes in plasma cholesterol levels.

Animals↗
PubMed1992

Effects of olestra, a noncaloric fat substitute, on daily energy and fat intakes in lean men.

Nutrient and energy intakes, hunger, and fullness were examined after the replacement of 36, 20, or 0 g fat in breakfast with olestra, a noncaloric fat substitute. Twenty-four lean, nondieting men (aged 21-30 y) participated in a placebo-controlled, three-condition crossover design. Self-selected, ad libitum intakes at lunch and dinner were monitored in the laboratory. Evening snacks and breakfast the next day were assessed through food diaries. Visual-analog-scale ratings including hunger and fullness were collected throughout the test days. Single-meal olestra substitution produced a significant dose-related reduction in the amount and percentage of energy from fat consumed daily with a reciprocal increase in carbohydrate intake. Daily energy intakes were not significantly different nor did ratings of hunger and fullness vary systematically between conditions. Consumption of olestra can reduce fat intake and increase carbohydrate intake without affecting total daily energy intake or usual patterns of hunger and fullness.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Responses of hepatic and celiac vagal afferents to intraportal mercaptoacetate in rats fed a high-fat or low-fat diet.

Responses of either hepatic or celiac vagal afferents to intraportal hepatic vein administration of 2-mercaptoacetate (MA) were examined in rats maintained on either a high-fat or low-fat diet. Afferent activity in both hepatic and celiac vagal afferents significantly increased after administration of MA, but the magnitude of these increases did not differ as a function of either diet. Responses of hepatic vagal afferents were highly variable across individual rats, whereas those of celiac vagal afferents were remarkably consistent across individual rats. These data suggest that MA-induced enhanced feeding in rats given a fat-enriched diet does not depend on a stronger hepatic and/or celiac vagal afferent response than that of rats given a low-fat diet.

Action Potentials↗
PubMed2000

Effect of milk fat, cocoa butter, and whey protein fat replacers on the sensory properties of lowfat and nonfat chocolate ice cream.

Lowfat and nonfat chocolate ice creams were made with 2.5% of milk fat, cocoa butter, or one of two whey protein-based fat replacers, Dairy Lo or Simplesse. Polydextrose was added as required so that all formulations contained the same amount of total solids. Ice cream was stored at a control temperature of-30 degrees C. Hardness, viscosity, and melting rate were measured by physical methods. Trained panelists conducted descriptive sensory analyses of the samples at 0, 6, and 12 wk. Attribute ratings were analyzed by analysis o variance with least significant difference mean separation and orthogonal contrasting. Data were also analyzed by multivariate analysis of variance with canonical variate analysis. Consumer acceptance (n = 50) did not differ among the fresh ice creams (wk 0). Ice cream containing milk fat had less intense cocoa flavor and was more resistant to textural changes over time compared with the other ice creams. Simplesse was more similar to milk fat than was Dairy Lo in its effect on brown color, cocoa flavor, cocoa character, and textural stability but was less similar in terms of thickness and mouthcoating.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed1998

Fit, fat and fat free: the metabolic aspects of weight control.

This paper examines the role of energy expenditure, especially physical activity related energy expenditure, in the metabolic aspects of body weight regulation. New data have emerged from studies conducted over the last decade, demonstrating that physical activity is a critical factor contributing to successful body weight regulation in lean and obese individuals. A growing number of prospective studies show the protective role of increased physical activity against weight gain over time. Also, individuals who are successful in long-term maintenance of a weight reduction are highly likely to also be physically active. Participation in physical activity is among the best predictors of success in weight maintenance. Physical activity facilitates weight maintenance through direct energy expenditure and improved physical fitness. The latter facilitates the amount and intensity of daily activities. Both components are of importance in relation to energy and substrate balance. Exercise may act as a substitute for an enlarged fat mass, in bringing about rates of fat oxidation commensurate with fat intake. Metabolic effects on lipid mobilization and oxidation and morphological/biochemical changes in the muscle fiber, contribute to this successful regulation of body weight. A limited number of studies indicate that, the minimal level of additional energy expenditure by physical exercise required for protection against gain in excessive body fatness, is around 12 kcal/kg body weight/d. In conclusion, the amount of energy expended in physical activity, mediated by several metabolic factors, may play an important role in body weight regulation.

Adult↗
PubMed1985

The experimental obesity by high-fat feeding--a model for evaluation of the biological value of fats.

The experimental obesity by high-fat feeding of rats, introduced after weaning, was found to be a suitable model for evaluation of the biological value of nutritional fats with different fatty acid composition: butter (group B), lard (L), partially hydrogenated oil (H), lard + sunflower oil 2:1 (LS). The differences in the fatty acid composition of these regimens affect: the efficiency in creating the model of obesity; the hormonal pattern of blood plasma; some metabolic pathways in liver and adipose tissue (especially in group H); the fatty acid composition of some structural, reserve and transport lipids; some biological tests indicative of membrane's phospholipid and fatty acid composition, i.e. the rate of platelets aggregation. A special attention should be paid to the striking differences in the cellularity and morphogenesis of adipose tissue in group B (hyperplastic obesity) in comparison with all other high-fat groups (hypertrophic obesity), irrespective of the identical energy and protein content of the diets. Thus, the early administration of a diet with butterfat (50% of energy) promoted a model of hyperplastic obesity, while the isocaloric diet with lard + sunflower oil caused a hypertrophic type of obesity. The authors have proved the regenerating capacity of the periepididymal fat pad in adult rats after partial lipectomy. The relative contribution of endogenic and exogenic (nutritional) factors in this process is discussed and the modifications in the cellularity of adipose tissue on these conditions are evaluated.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed2000

Swimming eliminates the weight gain and abdominal fat associated with ovariectomy in the retired breeder rat despite high-fat diet selection.

The effects of swim-training on choice of dietary fat, carbohydrate or protein, weight gain, energy intake, and energy efficiency were examined in ovariectomized and sham-operated retired breeder rats. After a 3 week training period of increased duration, rats swam for 75 min per session (5 days per week) for 4 weeks. Ovariectomized rats gained more weight than sham rats, while swimming reduced weight gain and abdominal fat. As a percentage of total intake, macronutrient choices (weight and energy) were similar for all groups, ovariectomized animals consumed more food and more energy, compared with sham animals. All rats freely chose the majority of their food (g) as carbohydrate and the majority of energy (kJ) as fat. Results indicate that a moderate intensity training program of swimming prevented the weight gain following ovariectomy in older rats despite their excessive caloric intake of fat.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1975

[Nutrition physiological aspects of deep frying fats. 7. Effect of deep frying fats on the lipid metabolism and the fatty acid composition of body lipids].

In feeding experiments no differences could be observed when used frying fats were fed to rats in the same amount and over the same period if compared with the unheated fats (partially hardened groundnut oil, soyabean oil). In details we investigated: concentration of plasma lipids, including content of total cholesterol, electrophoresis of plasma lipoproteins, fatty acid composition of plasma lipids and of adipose tissue. Amount and composition of the unsaponifiable matter in heated and unheated fats as well as the content of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons were determined. In in-vitro experiments we investigated the effect of pancreas lipase on these fats.

Animals↗
PubMed1991

Dietary fat composition influences fatty acid composition of milk fat globule membrane in lactating cows.

Milk fat globule membranes are derived directly from the apical plasma membrane of mammary epithelial cells. To evaluate the effect of dietary fat on mammary membranes, we determined the fatty acid composition of the milk fat globule membrane in lactating dairy cows fed diets supplemented with fats of different fatty acid composition, or infused intravenously with soy oil emulsion. A preliminary survey, using an abbreviated preparation procedure (membranes isolated at 48,000 x g-max for 15 min), yielded about 45% of the total membrane fatty acids that could be recovered by centrifuging at the same speed for 120 min, and showed that changes in fatty acid composition of membranes reflected dietary fatty acids to some extent. Dietary palmitic acid increased the content of 16:0 in the membranes. A high corn diet increased ruminal formation of t18:1, and its level increased to 12% of membrane fatty acids. Infusion of soy oil emulsion increased 18:2 membrane content, and decreased the levels of 18:1 and 20:4. All treatments decreased the ratio of unsaturated/saturated fatty acids as compared to controls, whereas the ratio of polyunsaturated/saturated fatty acids was increased by feeding a high corn diet or by infusing soy oil. The ratio of 18:2/c18:1 increased from 0.31 to 1.0 after infusing soy oil for 4 days. The fatty acids of membranes isolated upon 120-min centrifugation were slightly more saturated. The differences were not sufficiently large, however, to affect overall results significantly.

Animals↗
PubMed1991

Dairy fat, saturated animal fat, and cancer risk.

The relationship between the per person supply of fat from dairy products and lard and cause-specific cancer mortality was examined using 1979-1981 FAO data from 36 countries. Significant correlations (P less than 0.01) were found between dairy and lard fat intake and total, breast, prostate, rectal, colon, and lung cancer. Significant relationships between site-specific cancer mortality and ischemic heart disease mortality could also be established. Hormone-dependent cancers significantly correlate with both hormone-dependent and non-hormone-dependent cancers of the opposite sex, pointing toward other than sex-linked factors as an explanation. The level of saturated fat intake provides the most plausible link for the relationship between the cancers considered and ischemic heart disease mortality. Our findings support the concept of the important role saturated fat plays in cancer promotion.

Aged↗
PubMed2005

Disrupted fat absorption attenuates obesity induced by a high-fat diet in Clock mutant mice.

The Clock gene is a core component of the circadian clock in mammals. We show here that serum levels of triglyceride and free fatty acid were significantly lower in circadian Clock mutant ICR than in wild-type control mice, whereas total cholesterol and glucose levels did not differ. Moreover, an increase in body weight induced by a high-fat diet was attenuated in homozygous Clock mutant mice. We also found that dietary fat absorption was extremely impaired in Clock mutant mice. Circadian expressions of cholecystokinin-A (CCK-A) receptor and lipase mRNAs were damped in the pancreas of Clock mutant mice. We therefore showed that a Clock mutation attenuates obesity induced by a high-fat diet in mice with an ICR background through impaired dietary fat absorption. Our results suggest that circadian clock molecules play an important role in lipid homeostasis in mammals.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript in the arcuate nucleus stimulates lipid metabolism to control body fat accrual on a high-fat diet.

Previous studies have indicated a relationship between cocaine- and amphetamine-related transcript (CART) and leptin. The present study used quantitative PCR and in situ hybridization to examine this CART-leptin relationship in different animal models. With CART injection, the function of this pathway was also investigated. The results demonstrate that CART mRNA in the arcuate nucleus (ARC) was significantly increased in subjects fed a high-fat diet (HFD) compared to low-fat diet (LFD). It was also elevated in obese vs. lean rats and in normal-weight obesity-prone vs. obesity-resistant rats. In each group tested, CART mRNA in the ARC was positively correlated specifically with circulating levels of leptin. Its close association specifically with leptin was further supported by a stimulatory effect of this hormone on CART expression. This leptin-CART relationship in the ARC, in contrast, was less consistent or undetectable in the paraventricular nucleus and lateral hypothalamus. Central injection of CART peptide (55-102) increased circulating non-esterified fatty acid levels and decreased lipoprotein lipase activity in adipose tissue. These results suggest that, on a fat-rich diet, this leptin-CART pathway originating in the ARC inhibits excessive body fat accrual by causing a shift from lipid storage toward lipid mobilization.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Effects of plant stanol esters supplied in low-fat yoghurt on serum lipids and lipoproteins, non-cholesterol sterols and fat soluble antioxidant concentrations.

Oil-based products enriched with plant stanol esters can lower low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol concentrations by 10-14%. Effectiveness of low-fat products, however, has never been evaluated, although such products fit into a healthy diet. We therefore examined the effects of plant stanol esters emulsified into low-fat yoghurt (0.7% fat) on fasting concentrations of plasma lipids and lipid-soluble antioxidants, which may also change by plant stanol consumption. Sixty non-hypercholesterolemic subjects first consumed daily three cups (3 x 150 ml) of placebo yoghurt for 3 weeks. For the next 4 weeks, 30 subjects continued with the placebo yoghurt, while the other 30 subjects received three cups of experimental yoghurt. Each cup provided 1 g of plant stanols (0.71 g sitostanol plus 0.29 g campestanol) as its fatty acid ester. LDL cholesterol (mean+/-S.D.) increased by 0.06+/-0.21 mmol/l in the placebo group, but decreased by -0.34+/-0.30 mmol/l in the experimental group. The difference in changes between the two groups of 0.40 mmol or 13.7% was highly significant (P<0.001; 95% confidence interval for the difference, (-)0.26 -(-)0.53 mmol/l). Effects were already maximal after 1 week. HDL cholesterol and triacylglycerol concentrations did not change. Total tocopherol levels increased by 1.43 micromol/mmol LDL cholesterol (14.0%, P=0.015). beta-carotene levels, however, decreased by -0.02 micromol/mmol LDL cholesterol (-14.4%, P=0.038). Decreases in absolute beta-carotene concentrations were found in all apoB-containing lipoproteins. LDL-cholesterol standardised phytofluene levels decreased by 21.4+/-25.7% (P<0.001), while other plasma carotenoid (lutein/zeaxanthin, beta-cryptoxanthin, lycopene and alpha-carotene) levels did not change significantly. We conclude that low-fat yoghurt enriched with plant stanol esters lowers within 1 week LDL cholesterol to the same extent as oil-based products. LDL-cholesterol standardised concentrations of tocopherol increased. The observed decrease in beta-carotene levels, as found in many other studies, appears not to be limited to the LDL fraction.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1998

Intestinal fat suppressed intake of fat longer than intestinal sucrose.

Although animals eventually stop eating when only experiencing the oro-sensory stimuli from a food, they stop eating much more rapidly if they also receive postgastric stimuli simultaneously. This suggests that the postgastric effects of a nutrient influence the hedonic value of food or motivation to consume that food, and thus, can influence food selection within the time frame of a meal. In this experiment, rats were equipped with a gastric fistula and duodenal cannula. This combination allowed them to receive the same oro-sensory stimuli, but different postgastric nutrients. While ingesting either a fat (Intralipid) or carbohydrate (sucrose) solution, both of which drained from the gastric fistula, the rats received a duodenal infusion of either sucrose (10 mLs, 0.24 kcals/mL), fat (10 mLs, 0.25 kcals/mL) or saline (10 mLs, 0 kcals/mL). While ingesting the Intralipid, a duodenal infusion of fat suppressed intake quicker and longer than an infusion of sucrose. While the animals ingested sucrose, sucrose and fat suppressed intake equivalently.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Validation of deuterium labeled fatty acids for the measurement of dietary fat oxidation: a method for measuring fat-oxidation in free-living subjects.

BACKGROUND: Fatty acid oxidation has frequently been measured using (13)C or (14)C labeled fatty acids. While providing valuable data, the breath test method is hindered by the need for a controlled environment to measure VCO(2) and collect frequent breath samples. Additionally, the CO(2) breath tests require the use of (13)C- or (14)C-acetate to correct for isotope exchange in the TCA cycle. We validated d(31)-palmitic acid for measuring dietary fat oxidation. When oxidized, the deuterium appears as water and mixes with the body water pool providing a cumulative record of fat oxidation. METHODS: The recovery of deuterium from d(31)-palmitic acid at 10 h post-dose was compared to that of (13)CO(2) from [1-(13)C]-palmitic acid in nine subjects (body mass index (BMI)=23.6+/-2.8; percentage body fat (%BF)=22.6+/-5.3; mean+/-s.d.). Subjects were studied at rest. [1-(13)C]-acetate (2 mg/kg) was dosed in a liquid breakfast. On a second day, [1-(13)C]-palmitic acid (10 mg/kg) and d(31)-palmitic acid (15 mg/kg) were dosed with the same liquid breakfast. RESULTS: Recovery of (13)CO(2) from [1-(13)C]-acetate at 10 h post-dose was 53.7+/-10.4%. Recovery of d(31)-palmitic acid was 13.2+/-7.7% (mean+/-s.d.) and [1-(13)C]-palmitic acid recovery was 6.4+/-3.6%. When the (13)C data was corrected for [1-(13)C]-acetate (Na salt) recovery, the mean difference in percentage recovery between the two tracers was 0.5+/-2.8% and cumulative recoveries through 10 h post-dose were highly correlated (y=1.045x - 0.47; r(2)=0.88, P<0.0002). Our data shows both labels to be equivalent in their ability to measure dietary fat oxidation in resting subjects. CONCLUSIONS: The use of deuterium labeled palmitic acid eliminates the need for rigid control over the subjects' environment. Frequent sampling and measurement of VCO(2) are not needed for accurate calculation of percentage recovery of the deuterium label. In addition, the deuterium label has a decreased potential for isotopic exchange compared to (13)C or (14)C, so a recovery correction factor is probably not required.

Adult↗
PubMed1969

Studies on the origin of milk fat. A further study of bovine serum lipoproteins and an estimation of their contribution to milk fat.

1. Tritium-labelled palmitic acid combined in olive-oil triglycerides was introduced into the rumen of a lactating cow and the specific radioactivity of the lipids of milk and of the lipoproteins of both jugular and mammary venous serum was measured. 2. As previously found in a similar experiment with [(3)H]stearic acid, the specific radioactivity of the triglyceride fraction of the dextran sulphate-precipitable lipoproteins reached a maximum earlier and greater than that of the milk fat. 3. This fraction was the only lipid separated that had a significant arteriovenous difference in concentration, and is therefore identified as the main circulating lipid precursor of milk fat. 4. Although the non-esterified fatty acids showed no arteriovenous difference in concentration, they showed a negative difference in specific radioactivity that could have occurred only at the expense of the triglycerides of the precipitable lipoproteins. 5. The mean specific radioactivity of the triglycerides immediately after removal from the blood is calculated and shown to be very close in value to that of the corresponding fraction in mammary venous serum. 6. By comparison of the mean specific radioactivities of milk fat and of this precursor, its contribution is calculated as 36%. 7. This value is discussed with reference to the concentration of C(16) and C(18) fatty acids in milk fat and it is concluded that substantial amounts of these acids must have been derived from a source other than preformed circulating lipids.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

A predominant role of acyl-CoA:monoacylglycerol acyltransferase-2 in dietary fat absorption implicated by tissue distribution, subcellular localization, and up-regulation by high fat diet.

Acyl-CoA:monoacylglycerol acyltransferase-2 (MGAT2) catalyzes the synthesis of diacylglycerol and differs from the MGAT1 and MGAT3 in tissue distribution at the mRNA level. In addition to the small intestine, MGAT2 mRNA is also expressed at high levels in human liver, the lower gastrointestinal tract, and the mouse kidney, but the physiological significance of such expression has not yet been studied. Using an affinity-purified antibody, the present study investigated the expression of murine MGAT2 protein along the intestinal tract, determined its subcellular localization, and studied its regulation by diet and in db/db mouse. Results demonstrate a high level of MGAT2 expression in the small intestine in a proximal-to-distal gradient that correlated well with both MGAT enzyme activity and fat absorption pattern. In contrast, MGAT2 protein was not detectable in other sections of the digestive tract, including stomach, cecum, colon, and rectum, or other mouse tissues such as kidney, liver, and adipocytes. Immunohistological studies provided direct evidence that the enzyme is expressed not only in the villi, but also in the crypt regions of the small intestine, which suggests that MGAT2 expression occurs prior to the maturation of enterocytes. MGAT2 is localized in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in both MGAT2-transfected COS-7 and Caco-2 cells, indicating that the ER is the primary site for dietary fat re-synthesis. MGAT2 expression appeared not to be affected by diabetes in the db/db mouse, however, the total intestinal MGAT activity was significantly enhanced. Finally, an up-regulation of both MGAT2 protein expression and MGAT activity was observed in mice fed a high fat diet, implicating a role of MGAT2 in diet-induced obesity. Taken together, our data suggest a predominant role of MGAT2 in dietary fat absorption.

Acyltransferases↗