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[Chronobiology and industrial medicine: approach to the evaluation of the toxicological risk in occupational exposure to xenobiotics].

The recent interest of occupational medicine for chronobiology has been mainly devoted to the fields of energy expense and nutrition, work performance, social and work organization. However, experimental studies of chronotoxicology have showed that the effects of noxious agents vary according to biological time of exposure, nature of toxic agents, and target organ. This fact indicates that the different responses to xenobiotics depend on the temporal variation of susceptibility, which represents a characteristic of each living species. In some instances, the biological differences of susceptibility have been regarded as a consequence of the different capability of the organs to biotransform the xenobiotics itself. Another aspect of chronotoxicology seems to be of great interest for the occupational toxicology. In fact, the evaluation of the toxicological risk in work environment is based, in addition to the environmental monitoring, on the measure of indices both of exposure and effect. Recently, it has pointed out the importance of the knowledge of the temporal behaviour of these indices to avoid misinterpretations of the results. These considerations may lead to a new and wider approach to the evaluation of environmental risk.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Monitoring, modelling and environmental exposure assessment of industrial chemicals in the aquatic environment.

Monitoring and laboratory data play integral roles alongside fate and exposure models in comprehensive risk assessments. The principle in the European Union Technical Guidance Documents for risk assessment is that measured data may take precedence over model results but only after they are judged to be of adequate reliability and to be representative of the particular environmental compartments to which they are applied. In practice, laboratory and field data are used to provide parameters for the models, while monitoring data are used to validate the models' predictions. Thus, comprehensive risk assessments require the integration of laboratory and monitoring data with the model predictions. However, this interplay is often overlooked. Discrepancies between the results of models and monitoring should be investigated in terms of the representativeness of both. Certainly, in the context of the EU risk assessment of existing chemicals, the specific requirements for monitoring data have not been adequately addressed. The resources required for environmental monitoring, both in terms of manpower and equipment, can be very significant. The design of monitoring programmes to optimise the use of resources and the use of models as a cost-effective alternative are increasing in importance. Generic considerations and criteria for the design of new monitoring programmes to generate representative quality data for the aquatic compartment are outlined and the criteria for the use of existing data are discussed. In particular, there is a need to improve the accessibility to data sets, to standardise the data sets, to promote communication and harmonisation of programmes and to incorporate the flexibility to change monitoring protocols to amend the chemicals under investigation in line with changing needs and priorities.

Environmental Exposure↗
PubMed2003

Comparison of biomarker and pathological responses in flounder (Platichthys flesus L.) induced by ingested polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) contamination.

This study investigated the response of biomarker measurements and histopathological indicators of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) exposure in the flounder (Platichthys flesus L.). Flounder were fed food spiked with a mixture of four PAHs at an environmentally relevant range of concentrations for either one or six months. Ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) activity was elevated following 1 month exposure to PAH concentrations up to 50 mgkg(-1) in food. Bile metabolite concentrations were found to increase with PAH concentration, up to 500 mgkg(-1) PAH. By comparison, no DNA adducts were detected and there were no significant histopathological changes observed. After 6 months exposure, EROD levels were not elevated but bile metabolites showed a similar dose dependent relationship as in the 1 month experiment, while DNA adducts were only detected in the highest PAH exposure groups. No significant histopathological changes were observed. The results are discussed with respect to the implications for the use of these methods in environmental monitoring studies.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Quality assurance in measuring the elemental composition of the alga Fucus vesiculosus.

Algae are increasingly used for the purpose of environmental biomonitoring, for instance in the long-term program of the Federal Environmental Specimen Bank of Germany. Therefore, for the studies presented here, freeze-dried samples of Fucus vesiculosus collected from the North Sea shores were analyzed for a broad range of elements by instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA), while inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES) and mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) were carried out on digests. The entire analytical procedures, including field sampling, cleaning of material, sample handling, determination of blanks and instrumental parameters, are described. Certified reference materials analyzed in parallel with real samples and intermethod comparisons were used for assuring the accuracy of the analytical data. Reproducibility of INAA measurements was between 4 and 6% depending on the element considered. Possible sources of uncertainty and variation of the contaminant origins are discussed. Boundary conditions for the performance of algae sampling within environmental monitoring programs and the application of this marine bioindicator for the purpose of controlling time-dependent and local differences in element patterns are presented.

Cryopreservation↗
PubMed2005

Freshwater mussel shells as environmental chronicles: geochemical and taphonomic signatures of mercury-related extirpations in the North Fork Holston River, Virginia.

This study utilized freshwater mussel shells to assess mercury (Hg) contamination in the North Fork Holston River that extirpated (caused local extinctions of) a diverse mussel fauna. Shells (n = 366) were collected from five sites situated upstream (two sites), just below (one site), and downstream (two sites) of the town of Saltville, Virginia, where Hg was used to produce chlorine and caustic soda from 1950 to 1972. Shell samples were used to test the (1) utility of geochemical signatures of shells for assessing the spatial variation in Hg levels in the river relative to the contamination source and (2) value of taphonomy (post-mortem shell alteration) for distinguishing sites that differ in extirpation histories. Geochemical signatures of 40 shells, analyzed using atomic absorption spectroscopy, indicated a strong longitudinal pattern. All shells from the two upstream sites had low Hg concentrations (<5-31 microg/kg), shells directly below Saltville had variable, but dramatically higher concentrations (23-4637 microg/kg), and shells from the two downstream sites displayed intermediate Hg levels (<5-115 microg/kg) that declined with distance from Saltville. Two pre-industrial shells, collected at Saltville in 1917, yielded very low Hg estimates (5-6 microg/kg). Hg signatures were consistent among mussel species, suggesting that Hg concentrations were invariant to species type; most likely, highly variable Hg levels, both across sites and through time, overwhelmed any interspecific differences in Hg acquisition. Also, a notable postmortem incorporation of Hg in mussel shells seemed unlikely, as the Hg content was not correlated with shell taphonomy (r= 0.18; p = 0.28). The taphonomic analysis (n = 366) showed that the degree of shell alteration reliably distinguished sites with different extirpation histories. At Saltville, where live mussels have been absent for at least 30 years, shells were most heavily altered and fragmented. Conversely, fresh-looking shells abounded upstream, where reproducing mussel populations are still present. In summary, relic shells offered valuable spatio-temporal data on Hg concentrations in a polluted ecosystem, and shell taphonomic signatures discriminated sites with different extirpation histories. The shell-based strategies exemplified here do not require sampling live specimens and may augment more standard strategies applied to environmental monitoring. The approach should prove especially useful in areas with unknown extirpation and pollution histories.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Microbial biosensors.

A microbial biosensor consists of a transducer in conjunction with immobilised viable or non-viable microbial cells. Non-viable cells obtained after permeabilisation or whole cells containing periplasmic enzymes have mostly been used as an economical substitute for enzymes. Viable cells make use of the respiratory and metabolic functions of the cell, the analyte to be monitored being either a substrate or an inhibitor of these processes. Bioluminescence-based microbial biosensors have also been developed using genetically engineered microorganisms constructed by fusing the lux gene with an inducible gene promoter for toxicity and bioavailability testing. In this review, some of the recent trends in microbial biosensors with reference to the advantages and limitations are been discussed. Some of the recent applications of microbial biosensors in environmental monitoring and for use in food, fermentation and allied fields have been reviewed. Prospective future microbial biosensor designs have also been identified.

Bacteria↗
PubMed2005

How probability survey data can help integrate 305(b) and 303(d) monitoring and assessment of state waters.

Section 305(b) of the United States' Clean Water Act (CWA) requires states to assess the overall quality of waters in the states, while Section 303(d) requires states to develop a list of the specific waters in their state not attaining water quality standards (a.k.a impaired waters). An integrated, efficient and cost-effective process is needed to acquire and assess the data needed to meet both these mandates. A subset of presentations at the 2002 Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program (EMAP) Symposium provided information on how probability data, tools and methods could be used by states and other entities to aid in development of their overall assessment of condition and list of impaired waters. Discussion identified some of the technical and institutional problems that hinder the use of EMAP methods and data in the analysis to identify impaired waters as well as development needs to overcome these problems.

Data Collection↗
PubMed2002

Quality control criteria for analysis of organic traces in water.

The aim of this paper is the discussion of quality control (QC) criteria for environmental monitoring of organic contaminants at trace levels in water. In addition, QC criteria in the identification and confirmation of target analytes have been considered.

Environmental Monitoring↗
PubMed2006

Assessing water clarity as a component of water quality in Gulf of Mexico estuaries.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program (EMAP) uses water clarity as a water quality indicator for integrated assessments of coastal waters. After the publication of the first National Coastal Condition Report (USEPA, 2001c), the national water clarity reference value of 10% of ambient surface light at 1 m depth was reevaluated and modified to reflect expected differences in regional reference light conditions. These regional differences range from naturally turbid estuaries like those found in Mississippi and Louisiana to clear water estuaries expected to support extensive beds of submerged aquatic vegetation in, e.g., Florida and Tampa Bays. For the second National Coastal Condition Report, water clarity was assessed based on regional reference values (USEPA, 2004). Different regional water clarity reference values and data collection methods necessitated the development of a water clarity index based on light attenuation coefficients (k). This index incorporates regional reference conditions and is interchangeable with secchi depth and percent light transmission calculated from light meter measurements. Evaluation of the water clarity index shows that k values based on transmissivity at 1 m can be estimated from secchi depth measurements and successfully used as a surrogate for transmissivity calculated from light meter data. An approach for assessing water clarity in Gulf of Mexico estuaries using light meter data and secchi depth is presented.

Atlantic Ocean↗
PubMed2001

Oligophilic bacteria as tools to monitor aseptic pharmaceutical production units.

The bacterial loads of air, surfaces, and personnel in clean rooms are routinely monitored using a set of standard media. Bacteria that can grow on these media are a tiny fraction of the total numbers in any environment. A substantial proportion of bacteria long thought to be unculturable were recently shown to be oligophilic. Oligophile counts in clean rooms in our studies exceeded the standard plate counts by up to 2 orders of magnitude. They responded to disinfection routines in ways similar to the responses of conventional bacteria. We suggest that oligophiles are better tools than conventional bacteria for environmental monitoring in aseptic pharmaceutical production units.

Bacteria↗
PubMed2003

Ecological condition of US Mid-Atlantic estuaries, 1997-1998.

The Mid-Atlantic Integrated Assessment (MAIA-Estuaries) evaluated ecological conditions in US Mid-Atlantic estuaries during the summers of 1997 and 1998. Over 800 probability-based stations were monitored in four main estuarine systems--Chesapeake Bay, the Delaware Estuary, Maryland and Virginian coastal bays, and the Albemarle-Pamlico Estuarine System. Twelve smaller estuaries within the four main systems were also assessed to establish variance at the local scale. A subset of the MAIA-Estuaries data is used here to estimate the extent of eutrophication, sediment contamination, and benthic degradation in mid-Atlantic estuaries. An Environmental Report Card and Index of Environmental Integrity summarize conditions in individual estuaries, the four estuarine systems, and the entire MAIA region. Roughly 20-50% of the region showed signs of eutrophication (high nutrients, excessive production of organic matter, poor water clarity, or depleted dissolved oxygen), 30% had contaminated sediments, and 37% had degraded benthic communities. Compared with the Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program (EMAP)-Virginian Province study in 1990-1993, larger fractions of Chesapeake Bay (17%) and Delaware River (32%) had increased metals or organics in sediments.

Biodiversity↗
PubMed1998

Genetic heterogeneity and PCR detection of Cryptosporidium parvum.

A variety of methods have been applied to the study of genotypic and phenotypic polymorphism in Cryptosporidium parvum. Results from these studies have consistently shown the existence of different genotypes and phenotypes within the species. A long-term goal of this work is the identification of markers for virulence in humans and animals and the elucidation of transmission cycles of C. parvum. Achievement of these goals will depend on the identification of highly polymorphic loci. Of particular interest are polymorphisms amenable to typing by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), as C. parvum cannot be expanded in vitro. Fingerprinting of isolates by restriction of PCR fragments or allele-specific PCR has given promising results. As originally observed by isoenzyme analysis, genetic fingerprinting has confirmed the occurrence in humans of unique C. parvum genotypes which are not found among calf isolates. This observation remains to be reconciled with the cross-infectivity of C. parvum to ruminant and nonruminant hosts and the important role that bovines play in the epidemiology of C. parvum and human cryptosporidiosis. Although PCR detection of C. parvum DNA from individual oocysts has been reported, the sensitivity of PCR detection when working with environmental or fecal samples is significantly reduced. Therefore, PCR is currently not used for routine diagnosis or environmental monitoring for C. parvum. Inhibitors present in environmental samples, mainly in water and soil, which can negatively affect PCR recoveries, have been identified, and several methods have been proposed to circumvent these problems. The further refinement of detection and genetic fingerprinting protocols will provide essential tools for indentifying environmental sources of oocysts and elucidating transmission cycles.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Integrated indexes of occupational exposure as predictors of kidney dysfunction.

The aim of the study was to evaluate the dose-effect and dose-response relationships between the integrated indexes Cd-A x t (mg/m3 x years of exposure) and Cd-B x t (microg/l x years of exposure), and the increase in retinol binding protein excretion in urine (RBP-U) and beta2-microglobulin concentration in serum (beta2M-S). The study was carried out in the nickel-cadmium battery factory in 1998-1999. Exposure to cadmium was formerly very high. The study group consisted of 116 persons for whom the results of determinations of Cd-B were available during two former observation periods (1983 and 1986-1988). The mean age of the group was 49 years and the mean period of exposure was 17 years. The dose-effect relationship between Cd-B x t and RBP-U or beta2M-S was much better (r = 0.642 and 0.513) than between Cd-A x t and RBP-U or beta2M-S (r = 0.173 and 0.127). There was also correlation between Cd-U (microg/g creatinine), measured in 1998-1999, and RBP-U or beta2M-S (r = 0.343 and 0.198). Urinary cadmium should, however, be used with caution as a dose estimate because its excretion may increase as a result of renal damage. According to the dose-response relationship, an increase in RBP excretion above 300 microg/g creatinine can be expected in 10% of subjects at the integrated exposure index (Cd-B x t) of about 450 microg/l x years, and an increase in beta2M-S above the accepted cut-off point of 2.4 mg/l can be expected in 10 % of subjects at Cd-B x t of about 190 microg/l x years. The data obtained confirmed the validity of the recommended at present health-based limit for occupational exposure of 5 microg/l of blood, as well as the superiority of the biological monitoring of exposure to cadmium over the environmental monitoring.

Cadmium↗
PubMed2004

Use of ecological regions in aquatic assessments of ecological condition.

Ecological regions are areas of similar climate, landform, soil, potential natural vegetation, hydrology, or other ecologically relevant variables. The makeup of aquatic biological assemblages (e.g., fish, macroinvertebrates, algae, riparian birds, etc.) varies dramatically over the landscape, as do the environmental stresses that affect the condition of those assemblages. Ecoregions delineate areas where similar assemblages are likely to occur and, therefore, where similar expectations can be established. For this reason, ecological regions have proven to be an important tool for use in the process of ecological assessment. This article describes four examples of the use of ecological regions in important aspects of environmental monitoring and assessment: (1) design of monitoring networks; (2) estimating expected conditions (criteria development); (3) reporting of results; (4) setting priorities for future monitoring and restoration. By delineating geographic areas with similar characteristics, ecological regions provide a framework for developing relevant indicators, setting expectations through the use of regional reference sites, establishing ecoregion-specific criteria and/or standards, presenting results, focusing models based on relationships between landscape and surface water metrics, and setting regional priorities for management and restoration. The Environmental Protection Agency and many state environmental departments currently use ecoregions to aid the development of environmental criteria, to illustrate current environmental condition, and to guide efforts to maintain and restore physical, chemical and biological integrity in lakes, streams, and rivers.

Ecology↗
PubMed2002

Oxidative stress in the mussel Mytella guyanensis from polluted mangroves on Santa Catarina Island, Brazil.

Digestive glands of the mangrove mussel Mytella guyanensis, collected at one non-polluted site (site 1) and two polluted sites (sites 2 and 3), were analysed for different antioxidant defenses, lipid peroxidation and DNA damage. Thiobarbituric acid-reactive substance (TBARS) and 8-oxo-7,8-dihydro-2'-deoxyguanosine levels were enhanced at the polluted sites. With the exception of superoxide dismutase, the activities of catalase and glutathione peroxidase were also higher at the polluted sites. Greater increases were observed in glutathione reductase, glutathione S-transferase and etoxyresorufine-O-deethylase activities at the polluted sites. Conversely, reduced glutathione content was higher at the control site. Trace metal contents in mussels collected at polluted sites were increased compared to the control site, and there were strong positive correlations between TBARS and Cu and Pb contents. M. guyanensis is routinely exposed to an oxidative stress condition at both polluted sites, and considering xenobiotic bioaccumulation in bivalve molluscs, the mangrove mussel represents an excellent bioindicator for environmental monitoring studies.

Animals↗
PubMed1992

Environmental health risks of toxic waste site exposures--an epidemiological perspective.

A general account is given of the problems of assessing the impact of human exposure to toxic waste sites, including the identification of truly exposed populations and of exposure pathways. Epidemiological studies of populations at risk are briefly reviewed and methodological problems summarised. These include the use of relatively weak study designs, inadequate exposure assessment and recall biases associated with symptom reporting among anxious residents living in the vicinity of waste sites. In South Africa, health risks associated with exposure to toxic waste sites need to be viewed in the context of current community health concerns, competing causes of disease and ill-health, and the relative lack of knowledge about environmental contamination and associated health effects. A nonspecific deterioration of health and well-being is more likely to result from waste site exposures than is overt clinical disease. Socially acceptable policies and controls may have to be based on criteria other than demonstrable ill-health. Detailed inventories and registries of the nature of disposed materials need to be maintained, sites of poorly controlled disposal in the past identified and selective environmental monitoring conducted. Epidemiological studies may be justified in situations where exposures well in excess of acceptable norms are demonstrated. An integrated national waste management policy for the country is urgently needed.

Environmental Exposure↗
PubMed2001

Water quality in Scotland: the view of the regulator.

Water quality in Scotland has progressively improved over the past 50 years as the environmental damage, which resulted from the industrial revolution, has been addressed. This paper provides an overview of current water quality in rivers, lochs, estuaries and coastal waters and describes the limited information available on groundwater. The main factors affecting water quality are reviewed, with sewage, diffuse agricultural pollution, acidification and urban drainage identified as the most important. Trends in pollution pressure and levels of investment in pollution control have been used to predict the condition of Scotland's surface water over the next 10 years. Major improvements are expected. However, progress will be slowed by the increased relative importance of diffuse sources of pollution, which are less amenable to legislative controls. Future changes in environmental monitoring are also expected to move the emphasis away from point source pollution. The current freshwater classification schemes are based upon a relatively narrow measure of water quality and are expected to expand to include a wider range of ecological parameters. This will result in an increase in the waters defined as impacted as the effects of other environmental pressures are taken into account. Finally the implications of these changes for the future management of the aquatic environment are assessed.

Environmental Monitoring↗
PubMed1997

Regulation of promoter-CAT stress genes in HepG2 cells by suspensions of particles from ambient air.

A panel of HepG2-derived cell lines (CAT-Tox [L] assay, Xenometrix), harboring stress genes consisting of a sequence for chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) under the transcriptional regulation from mammalian promoters and response elements, was exposed for 18-24 hr to aqueous suspensions of urban dusts (SRM-1648, SRM-1649, EHC-93) or PM2.5 particles (particulate matter < 2.5 micron). Expression of CAT protein was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Induction of the CAT genes was verified with benzo[a]pyrene (CYP1A1, cytochrome P450 1A1 promoter; GSTYa, glutathione transferase subunit Ya promoter; XRE, xenobiotic response element), cadmium sulfate, and copper sulfate (HMTIIa, metallothionein IIa promoter; HSP70, heat shock protein 70 promoter). The urban dust suspensions were active on CYP1A1, GSTYa, and XRE cell lines. SRM-1648 and SRM-1649 were twice as potent as EHC-93 per unit mass in inducing the xenobiotic-dependent responses, which correlated with contents in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. These three reference particles, as well as six PM2.5 preparations collected on hi-vol filters in the Great Lakes basin, were also found to induce HMTIIa and HSP70, the magnitude of the responses correlating closely with the amount of soluble copper in the particulate preparations. The results indicate that bioavailable chemical species in the unfractionated particles can directly and quantitatively induce xenobiotic, metal, and stress-dependent responses in a target cell model, resulting in patterns of gene induction consistent with the chemical compositions of the environmental materials. We propose that cell culture models could be helpful for toxicodynamic inferences in adjunct to environmental monitoring and exposure assessments.

Air Pollutants↗