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[Vestibular diagnostics in childhood - methods and assessment].

BACKGROUND: Children with vertigo are thought to be difficult to examine. Vestibular test batteries are used less frequently for children than in adult patients. METHODS: Within the context of a retrospective study 136 patients in age between 0 and 15 years, who were examined by Frenzel's glasses, ENG and VOG between 1996 and 1999 were evaluated. Caloric test and frequency selective rotation chair tests were performed. RESULTS: Workability of VOG examination (91 %) was higher than Frenzel glasses (86 %) and ENG (78 %). Videooculography is the method of choice in childhood. Comparing diagnosis after vestibular testing and discharge diagnosis a sensitivity of 68 %, a specificity of 88 %, an accuracy of aim of 79 % and a positive predictive value of 92,9 % was calculated. CONCLUSION: Thus restriction of vestibular functional diagnostics in childhood is not justified.

Adolescent↗

Head-shaking nystagmus: a sensitive indicator of vestibular dysfunction.

This study investigated 258 consecutive patients with the complaint of vertigo undergoing vestibular function tests between August 1992 and July 1994. The head-shaking nystagmus test was performed in a passive fashion with the patient placed in a sitting position with the head anteflexed at 30 degrees and oscillated +/- 45 degrees horizontally for 30 cycles in 15 s; the post head-shaking nystagmus was recorded by electronystagmography. Conventional bithermal caloric tests were conducted with the normal limit of canal paresis set at 20%. The results show significant correlation between head-shaking nystagmus and canal paresis. Head-shaking nystagmus is more sensitive than canal paresis in predicting vestibular dysfunction. The sensitivity of head-shaking nystagmus in detecting a canal paresis was 90%. Although the direction of head-shaking nystagmus does not always accord with the side of peripheral vestibular dysfunction, it is an indicator of vestibular dysfunction and this test could be performed easily as a screening test in every otoneurological investigation.

Adolescent↗

[Evidence for the validity of an extended theory of Bárány].

The results published in literature of caloric tests in face-up position are compared to these obtained in face-down position. The rates of convective flow and expansion of the endolymph are evaluated. The theory of Bárány continues to be valid, because the rate of convection is greater than that of expansion. Together with the expansion effect the theory explains caloric nystagmus under terrestrial conditions and under conditions in space, i.e. in the absence of gravitation.

Aerospace Medicine↗

Differentiating the cause of acute sensorineural hearing loss between Ménière's disease and sudden deafness.

CONCLUSIONS: Most patients with Ménière's disease (MD) reveal abnormal vestibular-evoked myogenic potentials (VEMPs) and the recruitment phenomenon, whereas most sudden deafness patients display normal VEMPs without the recruitment phenomenon. We therefore recommend using both the recruitment phenomenon and VEMP testing as a diagnostic algorithm to differentiate between MD and sudden deafness as the cause of acute hearing loss. OBJECTIVE: To recommend a diagnostic algorithm to differentiate between MD and sudden deafness as the cause of acute hearing loss. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Between January 2002 and December 2003, 14 consecutive patients with "probable" MD who also had acute sensorineural hearing loss were enrolled in the study, together with another 14 age- and sex-matched patients with idiopathic sudden deafness. Each patient underwent a battery of audiovestibular function tests, including pure-tone audiometry, a stapedial reflex test, distortion-product otoacoustic emissions (DPOAEs), electronystagmography and a VEMP test. All patients were followed for at least 12 months after presentation. RESULTS: Significant differences were found between MD and sudden deafness in terms of the recruitment phenomenon (86% and 21% of cases, respectively) and abnormal VEMP responses (71% and 21% of cases, respectively). However, the diseases did not differ significantly in terms of abnormal DPOAEs or caloric test results.

Adult↗

Electronystagmography in normal children.

The use of electronystagmography (ENG) is well established in the diagnosis of imbalance in adults. It is now recognised that children with vertigo merit similar investigation. Experience in our own department has shown that children tolerate the ENG test procedure providing a few minor adjustments are made to the methodology. In a previous study, it was shown that normal adult data cannot be used in the interpretation of ENG tracing in children. This study reports the findings in 35 normal children. The incidence of spontaneous and positional nystagmus was higher than in adults. The vestibulo-ocular reflex to rotational and caloric tests is also different, and the normal limits for these tests are defined.

Child↗

3-D eye movement measurements on four Comex's divers using video CCD cameras, during high pressure diving.

Previous studies have shown the vulnerability of the vestibular system regarding barotraumatism (1) and deep diving may induce immediate neurological changes (2). These extreme conditions (high pressure, limited examination time, restricted space, hydrogen-oxygen mixture, communication difficulties etc.) require adapted technology and associated fast experimental procedure. We were able to solve these problems by developing a new system of 3-D ocular movements on line analysis by means of a video camera. This analyser uses image processing and forms recognition software which allows non-invasive video frequency calculation of eye movements including torsional component. As this system is immediately ready for use, we were able to realize the subsequent examinations in a maximum time of 8 min for each diver: oculomotor tests including saccadic, slow and optokinetic traditional automatic measurements; vestibular tests regarding spontaneous and positional nystagmus, and reactional nystagmus to the pendular test. For pendular induced nystagmus we used appropriate head positions to stimulate separately the lateral and the posterior semicircular canal, and we measured the gain by operating successively in visible light and complete darkness. Recordings were done during a simulated onshore dive to an ambient pressure corresponding to a depth of 350 m. The above examinations were completed on the first and last days by caloric tests with the same video system analyser. The results of the investigations demonstrated perfect tolerance of the oculomotor and vestibular systems of these 4 divers thus fulfilling the preventive conditions defined by Comex Co. We were able to overcome the limitations due to low cost PC computer operation and cameras (necessity of adaptation to pressure, focus difficulties and direct light exposure eye reflexions). We still have on line accurate measurements even on the torsional component of the eye movement. Due to this technological efficiency we also present some mathematical aspects of the software.

Adult↗

The effect of age on vestibular rehabilitation outcomes.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of the retrospective chart review was to compare vestibular rehabilitation outcomes in young versus older adults. STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective matched design. METHODS: Twenty-three persons with vestibular disorders aged 20 to 40 years were matched by gender, vestibular diagnosis, and vestibular function test results to 23 older adults aged 60 to 80 years. The patients were treated with a custom-designed physical therapy exercise program. Patients completed the Dizziness Handicap Inventory, the Activities-Specific Balance Confidence (ABC) scale, and the Dynamic Gait Index; number of falls; and rated the severity of their dizziness. The two-sample test, the Mann-Whitney test, and McNemar's test for correlated proportions were used to determine whether there was a difference in scores between the two age groups at the beginning and end of physical therapy. RESULTS: During the initial evaluation, older adults reported having statistically greater space and motion discomfort and more severe symptoms on a scale of 0 to 100. Younger adults had more impaired DGI scores and a higher proportion of caloric testing abnormalities. After rehabilitation, overall improvement was seen in both the younger and older populations. There were no statistical differences between the two groups on the DHI, the DGI, reported symptoms at discharge, or number of falls. When only the complete matched-pair data were analyzed, there were no statistically significant differences between the age groups in the proportion of patients demonstrating clinical improvement. CONCLUSION: Age does not significantly influence the beneficial effects of vestibular rehabilitation for persons with vestibular disorders.

Adult↗

Anterior semicircular canal benign paroxysmal positional vertigo and positional downbeating nystagmus.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to describe the clinical features and video-oculographic findings in patients with anterior semicircular canal benign paroxysmal positional vertigo (BPPV). MATERIALS AND METHODS STUDY DESIGN: This is a prospective case series. SETTING: The study was set at an outpatient clinic in a general hospital. PATIENTS: Fourteen individuals with symptoms of BPPV and positional downbeating nystagmus (pDBN) were included in the study. The diagnosis was based on a history of brief episodes of vertigo and the presence of pDBN confirmed in the video-oculographic examination during Dix-Hallpike test (DH) or head-hanging maneuver. INTERVENTION: Patients were treated by particle repositioning maneuver and the effectiveness was evaluated at 7, 30, and 180 days posttreatment. The treatment was repeated up to 4 times if pDBN was persistent. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The main outcome measure is the number of patients without pDBN at 30 and 180 days. RESULTS: Video-oculography showed a predominant pDBN in response to DH. Of the 14 patients, 7 had arterial hypertension, and 5 of 14 cases presented abnormalities on the caloric test. Horizontal spontaneous nystagmus was found in 3 of 14 individuals. Positional nystagmus at different positional test was observed in 5 of 14 individuals, suggesting the involvement of several canals. Of the 14 patients, 10 (71%) did not present vertigo, and the positional tests were negative at 30 days. However, 3 cases presented a positive DH with persistence of BPPV episodes and pDBN at 30 days, and another developed a contralateral posterior canal affectation. One of the patients maintained a persistent pDBN at 180 days despite the repeated maneuvers. CONCLUSIONS: Video-oculography demonstrates that anterior canal BPPV is characterized by a predominant downbeating nystagmus in response to DH. These individuals may show alterations in the vestibular caloric, and they can have multicanal affectation.

Adult↗

The vestibulo-ocular reflex in pupils at a Dutch school for the hearing impaired; findings relating to acquired causes.

The vestibulo-ocular reflex was evaluated with caloric tests and velocity step (VS) tests in 121 pupils at a school for the hearing-impaired. Vestibular impairment was found in a total of 50 pupils (41%). It was found in 17 out of the 33 (52%) pupils with acquired causes of hearing impairment and significantly more often in pupils with a pure tone hearing threshold of more than 90 dB than in those with a lower threshold. In the group with prenatal causes, 5 out of 8 rubella cases showed vestibular impairment. Four of these cases had impaired VS responses and normal caloric responses. The high proportion of vestibular impairment in the group with postnatal causes was due to 5 cases with meningitis, all of whom showed caloric weakness. Kernicterus was significantly associated with vestibular hyperreactivity (5 cases out of 7), presumably due to a central dysfunction.

Adolescent↗

Magnetic resonance imaging results in patients with central electronystagmography findings.

The objective of this study was to determine the findings on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in patients identified as having central vestibular abnormalities on electronystagmography (ENG) testing, to discuss the issue of 'gold standard' in the investigation of central oculo-vestibular system diseases and to present a model for understanding this area. A retrospective review of the case notes of patients (n = 23) found to have central ENG findings at vestibular assessment and for whom MRI scanning data was available was undertaken. Each patient underwent a full ENG evaluation, including gaze, ocular-motor and caloric testing, and MRI. Only seven of the patients with central ENG findings had abnormal MRI scans. Thus, the incidence of the identification of structural abnormality on MRI in patients with central ENG findings is low. These investigations are complementary in the investigation of balance disorder patients.

Brain↗

[Differential diagnosis of unilateral hearing loss].

There are two main kinds of hearing disorders: sensorineural and conductive. Sensorineural hearing loss is a common disorder that results from damage to the inner ear in over 95% of all cases; therefore, retrocochlear hearing disorders are rare and cannot be differentiated from sensory losses by clinical symptoms alone. Unilateral hearing loss entails many problems in hearing during the entire life of the affected patients. Conductive deafness has a readily determined etiology in most cases. In contrast, unilateral sensorineural hearing loss requires more refined and extensive investigation. The etiology of an asymmetric sensorineural hearing loss can often be difficult to determine. Because a wide variety of pathologic processes may be responsible for the hearing loss, numerous diagnostic tests are usually used during initial evaluation, including pure-tone audiometry, acoustic reflex testing, imaging, serologic testing, and auditory brainstem response testing. The most frequent causes of unilateral sensorineural hearing loss were sudden deafness, Menière's disease and cerebellopontine angle tumors. Early diagnosis of acoustic neuroma or other lesions of the internal auditory meatus or cerebello-pontine angle requires special attention. The patient with an acoustic neuroma may present to the otologist with a variety of clinical features. Classically these include a retrocochlear pattern of sensorineural hearing loss, reduced vestibular response on caloric testing and a pathological auditory brainstem response. Magnetic resonance imaging offers greater specificity than computed tomography. Therapy of unilateral sensorineural hearing loss includes efforts to treat known causes either medically or surgically.

Diagnosis, Differential↗

Galvanic-induced postural movements as a test of vestibular function in humans.

Galvanic stimulation produces a postural sway and eye movements in humans. Since galvanic currents are thought to exert their effect at the trigger zone of the vestibular nerve, an intact vestibular nerve should be necessary to produce a response. We have used galvanic stimulation in humans to test the hypothesis that intact vestibular nerve fibers are required to obtain a postural away response. Experimental subjects included normal subjects, patients who had undergone resection of an acoustic neuroma, and patients who had undergone vestibular neurectomy and surgical labyrinthectomy. Our results support the hypothesis that an intact vestibular nerve is necessary to produce a response. Moreover, two patients with recurrent vertigo following vestibular neurectomy and labyrinthectomy, who had absent ice-water caloric test responses in the operated ears, were found to have a positive galvanic response. This result suggested that their recurrent vertigo was based on intact residual vestibular nerve fibers. Although previous research has not yielded a routine clinical use for galvanic stimulation, our results suggest that galvanic stimulation of the vestibular system can provide unique and valuable diagnostic information.

Aged↗

Postoperative vestibular-evoked myogenic potentials in cases with vestibular schwannomas.

Although still the subject of discussion, vestibular-evoked myogenic potentials (VEMPs) have been considered to reflect the function of the saccular and, more recently, the cochlear tracts. To accurately determine the precise afferent pathway carrying VEMPs, we studied the outcomes of VEMPs and other examinations in patients with unilateral vestibular schwannomas. Eleven patients with unilateral vestibular schwannomas resected using a middle cranial fossa approach were included in the study. Patients underwent pure-tone threshold audiometry, caloric tests and analysis of auditory brainstem responses (ABRs) and VEMPs pre- and postoperatively. The results were compared with those obtained in patients with intact superior or inferior vestibular and cochlear nerves. Among the 11 patients studied, 4 retained their VEMPs postoperatively. Three of the 10 patients with inferior vestibular schwannomas exhibited normal VEMPs, preserved hearing levels (20 dB HL) and anatomically intact superior vestibular nerves. In all of these cases, ABRs more closely correlated with VEMPs than with caloric responses. In one of the cases with inferior vestibular schwannomas, VEMPs were preserved postoperatively and VEMP latencies were shortened, which indicates the preoperative presence of a conduction block in either the cochlear or superior vestibular nerve. VEMPs may be conducted in both the superior vestibular and cochlear nerves, as well as in the inferior vestibular nerve. Thus, evaluation of saccular nerve function should be performed carefully, especially in cases where hearing is preserved. It appears that cochlear conduction may proceed along two pathways, one direct and the other via the brainstem, but this remains to be verified.

Adult↗

The relationship between falls history and computerized dynamic posturography in persons with balance and vestibular disorders.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the relationship between Sensory Organization Test (SOT) scores and reported falls in persons with vestibular and balance disorders. DESIGN: Descriptive cross-sectional. SETTING: Outpatient tertiary balance and falls clinic. PARTICIPANTS: One hundred physical therapy (PT) charts of people referred to a balance and falls clinic were reviewed. Criteria for inclusion were that the patients had completed the SOT of computerized dynamic posturography (CDP), had a vestibular diagnosis, and had the numbers of falls recorded from patient report within the last 6 months at the initial examination. Rotational chair, caloric testing, oculomotor test, and Activities-Specific Balance Confidence (ABC) results were recorded, if available. INTERVENTIONS: Not applicable. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The SOT composite and ABC scores as they related to reports of falls in the last 6 months. RESULTS: The overall proportion of persons with vestibular disorders with positive 6-month history for 1 or more falls was 30% and for recurrent falls (>/=2) was 17%. Vestibular laboratory findings, age, sex, and vestibular diagnosis were not related to reported falls status. Patients who reported multiple falls prior to the PT examination had lower SOT composite scores than patients who reported 1 or no falls in the previous 6 months. The receiver operating characteristic curve identified a composite SOT score of less than 38 as demonstrating the highest likelihood ratio for differentiating between those people who reported no falls in the past 6 months and those who reported 2 or more falls. CONCLUSIONS: Persons who are recurrent fallers perform worse on SOT than either nonfallers or 1-time fallers. CDP performance can help guide the clinician in the development of a safe exercise program.

Accidental Falls↗

Effects of vestibulo-ocular reflex exercises on vestibular compensation after vestibular schwannoma surgery.

OBJECTIVE: To assess vestibular function in a large group of vestibular schwannoma patients so that we could determine whether simple vestibular exercises speed vestibular dysfunction recovery after tumor removal surgery. STUDY DESIGN: A prospective investigation of the vestibular dysfunction experienced by patients in the first 12 weeks after surgery. SETTING: Vestibular investigation unit at a tertiary referral institution. PATIENTS: Sixty-five patients with identified vestibular schwannoma referred for preoperative vestibular investigations. Thirty-two men and 33 women, with a mean age 51 years (range, 24-77 yr). INTERVENTIONS: There were 27 control patients, 30 exercise patients, and 8 patients that had balance physiotherapy. Exercise patients began simple vestibulo-ocular reflex gaze stabilization exercises 3 days after surgery. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Postoperative vestibular function testing was performed at 2 to 3, 6 to 7, and 10 to 12 weeks after surgery. Objective measurements of vestibular compensation status were as follows: spontaneous nystagmus and sinusoidal harmonic acceleration asymmetry and gain values. Dizziness Handicap Inventory questionnaires were used to assess subjective perceptions. RESULTS: The main findings were reduced dispersion in vestibulo-ocular reflex asymmetry at 2 to 3 weeks, reduced mean in asymmetry at 6 to 7 weeks, less dizziness/imbalance according to the Dizziness Handicap Inventory questionnaire, and that preoperative caloric tests did not predict postoperative severity of vestibular systems. CONCLUSION: This large study provided unique evidence that a program of simple vestibular exercises and education can speed the rate of compensation after vestibular schwannoma surgery.

Adolescent↗

Assessment of head shaking test in neuro-otological practice.

The head shaking test (HST) is an important test in neuro-otological diagnosis. In our study of 277 patients complaining of dizziness we verified this importance. The results thus obtained were compared with the results recorded in 73 normal subjects. Head shaking nystagmus was observed in 73 patients. Of these 73 cases, 42 involved central diseases and 31 cases involved peripheral diseases. Head shaking nystagmus was observed in 7 subjects of the control group. A highly significant correlation was noted between head shaking nystagmus and positional nystagmus, between head shaking nystagmus and the caloric test and between head shaking nystagmus and all the other spontaneous types of nystagmus that were investigated (eyes open in light/gaze straight ahead; eyes open behind Frenzel's glasses; eyes closed; eyes open in darkness). No correlation was found between head shaking nystagmus and cervical nystagmus and positioning nystagmus. The sensitivity of head shaking nystagmus, in comparison with other types of spontaneous nystagmus, was found to be slightly higher in cases with peripheral lesions than in those with central lesions. These data confirm the diagnostic importance of this simple test. It is also important to keep in mind that the HST has no importance for topodiagnostic purposes.

Adolescent↗

[Frontal pseudoataxia, discussion on its mechanism (author's transl)].

We presented a rare care who had right frontal lobe infarction, with left side pseudoataxia, and the mechanism, causing pseudoataxia, was considered. The patient, a 51 year-old, righ-handed male, was admitted on August 9, 1980, complaining of left-side pseudoataxia. About p.m. 7:00, July 29, 1980, he suddenly noticed numbness of the left foot, and he found himself difficulty in standing in the next morning. He had a mild paresis and tactile-tactile of the left side including the face, which was rapidly improved. However, there was pseudoataxia of the left extremities, which had not been improved. On physical examination, dysarthria, aphasia, finger agnosia, difficulty in right left orientation or muscle weakness was not recognized, and there was no sensory disturbance except for slight impairment of stereognosis, two point discrimination and vibratory sense. Demonstrable impairment of tactiletactile from was observed in the left hand. Notable dysmetria, terminal tremor and dysdiadochokinesia were seen in the left limbs, which were remarkably worsened with eyes closed. However, tapping and line-drawing tests were normal. Babinski-Weil's test disclosed typical compass gait. There was marked swaying in Romberg position. Tandem gait was impossible with a tendency to decline the left. Deep reflexies were normal except for mildly hyperactive radial reflex in the left. Carotid and vertebral angiographies revealed neither evidence of vascular occlusion nor displacement of vessels CT scan demonstrated a low density area, which included the right inferior and middle frontal gyri, the head of the right caudate nucleus and a part of anterior crus of right internal capsule. There was enlargement of anterior horn of the right lateral ventricle. Caloric test, electronystagmography, eye tracking test or optokinetic nystagmus test disclosed no abnormalities. Vibration induced falling, which is the postural reaction to muscle vibration during standing (Ekuland, G., 1972), was not recognized when the left Achiles' tendon was stimulated. Pseudoataxia of this patient differed from the typical cerebellar or vestibular ataxia. From a review of the literatures concerning frontal pseudoataxia, almost all cases had no distinct cerebellar signs, and showed positive Romberg's sign. The impairment of tactile-tactile form and postural reaction to vibratory stimulation to the left leg, appeared in this case, could be hardly explained by the lesion of parietal lobe or deconnection syndrome. Sensory perception of parietal lobe and pyramidal motor system were thought to be almost normal in this case. Therefore, these findings should be due to impairment of integration center between sensory and motor systems. The pseudoataxia in frontal lesion seems to occur as the results of involvement of this center, in which caudate nucleus maybe has important role, but not as the results of disturbances in the front-ponto-cerebellar or front vestibular pathway.

Ataxia↗

Harris-Benedict equations do not adequately predict energy requirements in elderly hospitalized African Americans.

BACKGROUND: Malnutrition, associated with poor outcome in the elderly, may be exacerbated by weight loss during hospitalization. Accurate estimation of energy requirements is important, particularly if predictions are applied to caloric supply. Because data on energy requirements for the elderly are limited, particularly for African-American patients, predictions are commonly made with equations derived from a younger, caucasian, cohort from 80 years ago. METHOD: To compare measured resting metabolic rate (RMR) in a hospitalized elderly African-American cohort in an urban community hospital during 1998 with Harris-Benedict predictions of basal energy expenditure (BEE). Energy expenditure was measured by a strict protocol with a portable metabolic cart, and height and weight were measured standardly and used to calculate BEE and body mass index (BMI). RESULTS: In 61 subjects, aged 79.6+/-8.9 years, measured RMR was significantly greater than predicted BEE (p=0.001, t-test). Caloric expenditure averaged 24.7+/-5 kcal/kg/day, but the range was broad (14-39 kcal/kg/day). The BEE prediction was 20.3+/-2.4 kcal/kg/day. CONCLUSION: In elderly hospitalized African-American patients, the Harris-Benedict equation significantly underestimated energy requirements. Given the link between unintentional weight loss and increased mortality on the one hand and potential clinical complications of overfeeding on the other, measurement of energy expenditure is warranted.

Black or African American↗