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PubMed2006

Differences in the spatial distribution of airborne pollen concentrations at different urban locations within a city.

BACKGROUND: The objective of the present work was to compare pollen counts at three different urban locations within a city to each other and to the counts from a fixed trap. This information could be useful to delimit zones in the urbanized part of the city according to the risk of allergic affections. METHODS: Aerobiological sampling using portable traps was carried out at three points in urban zones of the city of Badajoz (SW Spain) over one year at the same time as continuous sampling using a fixed trap at a point in the nonurban outskirts of the city. The sources of airborne pollen were studied by counting the trees in the streets and squares of the selected zones. A statistical analysis was performed of the differences between the portable and fixed traps and of the temporal and spatial variation in the city as a function of the distribution of the most important pollen sources. RESULTS: Forty-eight pollen types were identified with the fixed trap, and 28 with the portable traps. The grass, olive, and oak pollens come from almost exclusively external sources, there being no spatial differences in their concentrations in the city. Cypress pollen concentrations were much higher at the urban locations than at the fixed trap site. Plane tree pollen levels could be locally very high, reflecting the proximity of the source. Except for ornamental plants, pollen levels were lower at the urban locations than at the site on the outskirts of the city. CONCLUSIONS: (1) Using portable traps at different urban zones in a city could provide information about the spatial variation of atmospheric pollen levels. (2) A knowledge of the often widely variable distribution of ornamental plants with potentially allergenic pollen could be useful in indicating city zones with a greater or lesser incidence of potential pollinosis.

Air Pollutants↗
PubMed2006

Community urbanization and hospitalization of adults for asthma.

Asthma research has traditionally focused on children and the elderly, the two populations considered most susceptible to complications. The prevalence of asthma in the adult population (19-64 years of age) is, however, gaining recognition as a formidable clinical and public health problem. Few studies have compared the incidence of adult asthma hospitalizations in urban and nonurban areas. The study reported here, using population size, population density, and traffic-related factors to define urban versus nonurban environments, selected six Pennsylvania counties to test the hypothesis that the degree of urbanization influences the asthma hospitalization rate for adults. The study group comprised adults 19-64 years of age who were hospitalized for asthma (as the primary diagnosis) from 1999 to 2001. To define urbanization in relation to traffic, the study used daily vehicular traffic count and miles of roads/highways for each of the six counties. The authors found a decrease in the adult asthma hospitalization rate as urbanization decreased in some of the counties. For other counties, however, the rate increased as urbanization decreased. The counties in which the latter was observed had depressed measures of socioeconomic status. These findings suggest that depressed socioeconomic conditions may supersede exposure to traffic-related pollution as a factor associated with asthma hospitalizations.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Prevalence of asymptomatic malaria among school children in an urban and rural area in the Mount Cameroon region.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the prevalence of asymptomatic malaria among school children in an urban and a rural area during different seasons. SETTING: Molyko (urban area) and Bova (rural area), South West Province, Cameroon. SUBJECTS: 166 and 158 randomly selected children in Molyko during the dry and rainy seasons respectively and 122 and 117 children in Bova during the respective seasons. DESIGN: A cross sectional study. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Prevalence and parasite density of asymptomatic malaria in the urban and rural areas in the dry and rainy seasons. Prevalence of anaemia in infected and uninfected children during both seasons in the two areas. RESULTS: There was a significant association between axillary temperature and malaria parasitaemia in both seasons (p<0.05). Overall, the prevalence of asymptomatic malaria in the urban area (Molyko) was higher than that in the rural area (Bova) during both seasons, although the differences were not statistically significant (p>0.05). During the dry season, the prevalence of asymptomatic malaria in the urban area was 42.17% while that of the rural area was 40.16%. During the rainy season, the prevalence value in the urban area was 46.20% and that in the rural area was 43.59%. Malaria infection rates decreased with age during both seasons in both areas and the difference between age groups was statistically significant in Molyko during the rainy season (p<0.05), and Bova during the dry season (p<0.05). Mean packed cell volume (PCV) levels were lower in infected than in uninfected children in all age groups and the difference was significant in Molyko during the rainy season and Bova during the dry season. CONCLUSION: The lack of a significant difference between the two seasons implies perennial transmission of the disease in the areas. Control measures are, therefore, urgently needed in this region to reduce the burden of the disease.

Anemia↗
PubMed2006

[Forest distribution pattern and land use strategy along urban-rural gradient].

According to the buffers and urban fringes of Nanjing in 1988 and 2003, and by using landsat TM images and DEM data, 8 urban-rural gradient zones called I, II, III,......, VIII in this city were marked off, and the forest distribution pattern as well as the land use strategies along these gradient zones were studied. The results showed that in each of these zones, there was a significant positive correlation between the coverage of mountainous area and forest, and the forest coverages were obviously higher in mountainous than in flat area, with a distribution pattern of I > II, II < III, III approximately equal to IV, IV > V > VI > VII > VIII. In urbanizing area, there were three major landuse types, i. e. , urban building, ecological regulation (mainly forest stand), and agricultural production (mainly crop land). The potential value of a certain land use type became the leading cause of land use type selection. Inner city area had very low forest coverage because of its high exploitation value, and the ecological value of the outskirts within 10 km beyond the urban fringe was comparatively outstanding, with the forest coverage increased significantly. The forest coverage declined with the increasing distance to urban, because of the dominant station of the production value.

China↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Urban birth and risk of schizophrenia: a worrying example of epidemiology where the data are stronger than the hypotheses.

There is robust and consistent evidence from epidemiological studies showing that urban birth is associated with an increased risk of developing schizophrenia. Evidence suggests that this exposure may be associated with a sizeable proportion of cases. To date the candidate exposures underlying the urban birth risk factor have included infectious agents, low prenatal vitamin D, toxins associated with pollution, and stress. However, in general, the hypotheses proposed to explain the urban birth risk factor have been unsatisfying. In light of the general trend towards increasing urbanization, it is feasible that the attributable fraction of schizophrenia associated with urban birth may increase. The psychiatric research community should have a sense of urgency in exploring the mechanisms linking urban birth and risk of schizophrenia.

Humans↗
PubMed2002

Knowledge, attitudes and practices of women towards antenatal care: rural-urban comparison.

Pregnancy is a period at which a woman's health is placed at risk. However, health care professionals providing antenatal care (ANC) can reduce that risk by monitoring women' health regularly arid offering both preventive and curative services. Worldwide, an estimated 515,000 women die of pregnancy-related causes, a rate of over 1,400 maternal deaths each year. The overwhelming majority of these deaths and complications occur in developing countries. Effective ANC, appropriate emergency treatment of complications and competent referral level encompass the most effective answers to reduction of maternal deaths. Data related to rural/urban difference concerning knowledge, attitudes and practices of women towards ANC in Alexandria are lacking. The present study is aimed at comparing knowledge, attitudes and practices towards ANC between rural and urban women in Alexandria and also, to identify certain related factors. A cross-sectional, community- based house-to-house survey was conducted in Alexandria using cluster-sampling technique (30 clusters from urban areas and30 clusters from rural areas). Each cluster consisted of 5 women who had given birth within the last 2 years preceding the survey. Urban women had a higher mean total score for their knowledge on ANC than their counterparts of rural women, with a statistical significant difference (11.23 +/- 2.91 and 6.59 +/- 4.14, respectively and Z = 9.73, P < 0.001). Also, Urban women had a significantly higher mean total score for their attitudes towards ANC compared to the rural women (10.66 +/- 2.33 versus 8.55 +/- 2.39, P < 0.001). Concerning maternal practices, the current study revealed rural/urban disparities as significantly higher proportions of urban women had proper practices during antenatal period in their last pregnancy as regards utilization, earlier initiation and frequent visits of antenatal care. On the other hand, nearly half of urban women (45.3%) had not been vaccinated during their last pregnancy compared to only 24.7% of rural ones, (P < 0.001).

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Health problems and use of services at two urban American Indian clinics.

The use of primary health care services by urban American Indians and their health problems were compared with national and regional data compiled by the Indian Health Service, Bureau of the Census, Office of Technology Assessment, and the National Center for Health Statistics. A survey of medical records was conducted at urban Indian health clinics, one located in Oklahoma City, OK, and the other in Wichita, KS. Health records of 500 patients from each clinic were reviewed. Information was gathered concerning reasons for visit, diagnoses, and number of physician visits. In addition, predisposing variables and enabling variables from each patient's registration form were reviewed. According to the data collected in the survey, the clientele of these urban Indian clinics have annual incomes well below the average income of the general population and the overall American Indian population in these cities. Their lack of health insurance and low education levels were also evident. Use of primary health services was below that of the general population, and lower, but relatively close, to use levels of American Indians residing in rural Oklahoma and Kansas. Information on health problems indicated high levels of diabetes mellitus and hypertension among the middle-age groups, and high levels of use by young women for prenatal care and contraception. The absence of systematically collected and comprehensive health and health care use information about urban American Indians, who now comprise more than half the U.S. American Indian population, and the limitations in the available information leave important questions unanswered. There are indications that large segments of urban Indian populations have difficulty obtaining primary and preventive health care services due to their general socioeconomic condition and the absence of the Indian Health Service in many urban areas.

Adult↗
PubMed1988

Self-medication with chloroquine for malaria prophylaxis in urban and rural Zimbabweans.

Representatives of 200 urban and 200 rural households were interviewed to determine the extent and appropriateness of the use of chloroquine obtained over-the-counter for malaria prophylaxis. Malaria prophylaxis was taken by 38 urban and 65 rural respondents. Chloroquine was the only drug used and was found in 7 urban and 40 rural households. The presence of chloroquine was detected in 4/130 urban and 11/136 rural urine samples tested. Knowledge about chloroquine was unsatisfactory with 6 urban and 10 rural respondents aware that chloroquine could have harmful adverse effects. The doses of chloroquine taken for prophylaxis varied widely, and of the 103 respondents who took prophylaxis only 16% (urban) and 31% (rural) were taking the correct dose. Self-medication accounts for a substantial, little acknowledged, portion of chloroquine use. To limit appropriate use of a powerful, potentially dangerous antimalarial drug and perhaps extend the useful therapeutic life of chloroquine clear recommendations and population education are needed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1988

[Is there an urban factor in asthma and allergy?].

To evaluate if an "urban factor" could be responsible for an increase of asthma and allergic diseases in developed countries, we compared prevalence rates for these conditions in adults living in urban and rural settings. The urban group consisted of 4,008 adults, randomly selected from the 16 districts of the city of Marseille; the rural group consisted of 1,789 adults, representing 85% of the target population living in a small residential town, Trets. The protocol included, after a mass media information, home-visits by public health physicians. These physicians asked a short standardized questionnaire to all adults 18 to 65 years old. Then, in a subgroup of, hay-fever patients, they performed skin tests to grass pollens. The standardized prevalence rates of asthma and related symptoms, and hay fever, was very similar in both settings. Thus, this study does not support the hypothesis that there is a urban factor in asthma and allergic diseases. In the literature, several studies point out a higher prevalence of these diseases in an urban setting. But these studies have been performed several years ago, when there was a larger difference in air pollutants concentrations between urban and rural settings.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1984

Somatic findings at age 9 years on three ethnic groups of Nigerian urban and rural boys.

Somatic data were collected in 1983 on 577 Nigerian boys age 9 years drawn from Ibo, Yoruba, and Hausa ethnic groups living in urban and rural locations. On each subgroup, measures of body size, body form, and body composition were analysed for central tendency and variability. From urban samples, means for standing height and body weight were highest on Ibo boys, intermediate on Yoruba boys, and lowest on Hausa boys. Ibo urban boys, on average, were larger than their rural peers by 5.9 cm in standing height, 3.3 kg in body weight, and near 1.5 cm in shoulder width, arm girth, and calf girth. From pooled urban and rural subgroups, calf girth relative to lower limb height was near 40% on Ibo boys, 39% on Yoruba boys, and 38% on Hausa boys. From the three ethnic groups combined, means for thickness of skin and subcutaneous tissue on the arm and abdomen were higher on urban than rural boys. Composite means for 494 Nigerian Ibo and Yoruba urban and rural boys were lower than means for 208 United States Black boys measured during 1974-1977 in Richland County, South Carolina, by 1.7 cm in standing height, 3.0 kg in body weight, and near 1.5 cm in arm girth and calf girth.

Body Composition↗
PubMed1982

Health standards in terms of exercise fitness of school children in urban and rural areas in various European countries.

Health standard in terms of maximal aerobic power has been assessed in representative samples of school children in four European countries, with the object of testing the hypothesis that factors associated with the present days urbanization hamper the developmental process. In Norway and Iceland the exercise fitness of urban living children was stronger than that of children living in scarcely populated areas. In West Germany and Czechoslovakia there appeared a tendency in the same direction though the health standard in some ages was similar for urban and rural living children. The conclusion is consequently clear in as much as no evidence was found that supports the widespread concept that urbanization affects the exercise fitness during growth. On the contrary, urban living seems to enhance the developmental process most likely because the urbanized society stimulates children to vigorous play and sport, thus increasing habitual physical activity. Children living in rural environment become socially isolated, adopt sedentary living habits which subsequently hamper the development of functional characteristics. The maximal aerobic power of the boys and girls in these four European countries was similar when compared on basis on where they are living (urban/rural) except for the Norwegian boys who were considerably superior to the others.

Aerobiosis↗
PubMed1995

Dietary energy intake, energy expenditure and activity pattern among selected rural and urban poor in Bangladesh.

Rural-urban and seasonal differences in energy balance were studied among selected free living subjects, chosen from the poor population groups in Bangladesh. Individual dietary energy intakes were estimated by a combination of 24 hours recall and weighing method. Time allocation to various occupational and non-occupational activities were recorded by observation and questioning, and energy expenditures were calculated by using FAO/WHO/UNU guidelines. The male working adults in both the population groups studied were found to be in negative energy balance in both the seasons observed. In Jan-Feb when employment opportunities for the rural poor were few all age and sex groups were in negative energy balance, and when employment opportunities improved during May-June the situation reversed except for the male working adults. In urban areas, on the other hand, all age and sex groups, except the male working adults were in positive energy balance in both the seasons. Rural children under 10 years, had significantly higher energy expenditure (P < 0.023) than their urban counterparts. Seasonal difference in energy expenditure among the rural male adults is quite high. In the urban group there was no such seasonal difference. Apparently very high rural-urban difference in energy expenditure of the male adults (18-30 y) in season 1 may be attributed to very high energy demanding activities in which the observed subjects in rural areas were engaged during this season. Compared to their urban counterparts rural male adults (18-30 yrs.) were found to be devoted significantly higher time in occupational and heavy household activities.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1994

[Comparison of skeletal development between rural and urban school-age children].

Skeletal development and other related indicators were measured in 1680 children aged 7-18 in urban areas of Harbin and rural areas of Hailun County in 1990-1992, and comparisons were made. The results showed that the skeletal age of urban children aged 7-17 was higher than that of rural children in both sexes, and this difference was significant in the early puberty stage. The difference in mean values of cortical thickness of the metacarpals between urban and rural children showed similar tendency. Sesamoid ossification in urban children occurred one year earlier than that in rural children in both sexes. In primary school-age children, skeletal age was highly correlated with body height and weight. The development of secondary sex characteristics in both sexes and the age at menarche in girls in urban areas were earlier than those in rural areas, and the onset of puberty occurred one year earlier in urban than that in rural children.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Pulmonary function tests--a comparison between urban industrial and rural agricultural workers of Andhra Pradesh.

Physical parameters and pulmonary function tests (VC, FEV1, FEV1% and FEF25-75%) were collected in 112 urban industrial workers and 104 rural agricultural workers. These average values, values according to age and smoking habits were compared between urban and rural workers. Inspite of no differences in age, rural workers average height, weight, BSA is significantly lower than urban workers. A significant increase in VC value to the extent of 0.22 lit (7.1%), significantly lower FEV 1% value by 4.7% and reduce FEF25-75% value (4.7%) is demonstrated in rural than urban workers. Smoking is shown to produce airway obstruction in both urban and rural workers. A wide variation of PFT values between the present workers and other reported values in India is observed. This study indicates rural workers have better pulmonary capacity and less flow rates than their urban counterpart.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

The urban American Indian oversample in the 1988 National Maternal and Infant Health Survey.

Although more than two-thirds of American Indians and Alaska Natives (AI) live outside reservations and Tribal lands, few data sets describe social and maternal-child health risk factors among urban AI. The Indian Health Service sponsored a special effort to survey mothers of AI infants as part of the 1988 National Maternal and Infant Health Survey (NMIHS), a comprehensive national study conducted by the National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for Disease Control. The authors analyzed questionnaires completed by mothers residing in selected locations served by urban Indian health programs and compared the data with those for women of other races residing in metropolitan areas. After adjusting the sample for non participating States, the response rate in the Urban Indian Over sample was 60.8 percent (763 of 1,254). More than 45 percent of AI and black respondents, compared with 15 percent of white respondents, reported an annual household income of less than $10,000. About half of AI and black women, compared with nearly three-quarters of white women, reported having insurance or health maintenance organization coverage during pregnancy. Despite having a similarly low rate of health insurance coverage and low household income, AI respondents were far less likely than black respondents to have Medicaid coverage. A higher proportion of AI women than of black or white women reported difficulties in obtaining prenatal care, and AI women were less likely to obtain prenatal care. AI women were also less likely than white women to obtain prenatal care in the first trimester. Although a similar proportion of Al and white women reported that they consumed alcohol during the year before pregnancy, a higher proportion of Al drinkers than of white drinkers reported consuming one or more drinks weekly after finding out they were pregnant. The proportion of unwanted pregnancies was higher among Al women than among white women, but lower than among black women. Al and black women had a higher prevalence of depressive symptoms than did white women.The data suggest that urban Al mothers experience a disproportionate burden of economic, social, and behavioral risk factors for adverse pregnancy outcome.In spite of some data limitations, the Urban Indian Over sample of the NMIHS provides important information about social and health risk factors among urban Al mothers.

Adult↗
PubMed1994

Epidemiology of Hymenolepis nana infections in primary school children in urban and rural communities in Zimbabwe.

Fecal specimens were obtained on 3 occasions at 10-12 wk intervals from 315 children in 3 rural villages in Zimbabwe and from 351 children in the high-density suburbs of an adjacent small town. Specimens were examined qualitatively and quantitatively for eggs of Hymenolepis nana, and these were found in 142 (21%) children. Infections occurred more frequently in younger children in the urban area but in older children in rural areas. The prevalence in urban areas (24%) was higher than in rural areas (18%), and in urban areas infection correlated with low "hygiene scores" (determined by observation) and with the presence in the household of an infected sibling. The prevalence of infection in the 3 rural communities did not correlate with availability of water, number of households per toilet, with low "hygiene scores," or with the presence of an infected sibling. Treatment with a single oral dose of 15 mg/kg praziquantel cured 84% of the infected children. New or reinfections occurred more frequently in households that had an infected sibling in an urban but not rural setting. The study demonstrates distinct differences in the transmission of H. nana infection in rural and urban communities. The data suggest intrafamily transmission in urban areas, particularly in households with poor hygiene behavior, leading to primary infection early in life. In rural areas, the prevalence of infection and the incidence of reinfection were highest in children of school age, and there was little evidence for intrafamily transmission of the parasite.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1993

A comparison of Streptococcus pyogenes (group A streptococcal) bacteremia at an urban and a suburban hospital. The importance of intravenous drug use.

BACKGROUND: There has been a recent resurgence of severe infections with Streptococcus pyogenes, including bacteremias and a toxic shock-like syndrome. The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of intravenous drug use on the incidence, clinical epidemiology, and severity of S pyogenes bacteremia. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective survey of medical records at a 500-bed tertiary care urban hospital and at a nearby 500-bed suburban university-affiliated hospital. All patients from each hospital with documented S pyogenes bacteremia from January 1, 1979, to December 31, 1989, were included. We examined demographic and clinical data from cases at the two institutions, serologic findings from a subset of isolates from the urban hospital, and factors associated with mortality from S pyogenes bacteremia by stepwise logistic regression analysis. RESULTS: Ninety-five cases of S pyogenes bacteremia were identified, with 65% (62 cases) occurring at the urban center. Intravenous drug use occurred more frequently at the urban center (P < .005); the injecting drug users were significantly younger than the non-drug-using population (P = .001). Infection with the human immunodeficiency virus occurred in a subset of the injecting drug users at the urban center. Cellulitis and cutaneous abscesses were the most common sources of bacteremia at both centers. During the study period, the numbers of S pyogenes bacteremias increased at the urban center (P = .007), accompanied by a significant increase in the proportion of infections associated with parenteral drug use (P = .003). There was no change in the prevalence of any T type throughout the study period and no clustering of T types among injecting drug users. The overall mortality was 23% (20/89). By logistic regression analysis, age older than 65 years (relative risk [RR], 14; 95% confidence interval [CI], 3.2 to 68) and the presence of the toxic shock-like syndrome (RR, 36; 95% CI, 2.2 to 600) were significantly associated with mortality due to S pyogenes bacteremia. CONCLUSIONS: Intravenous drug use accounted for an increase in cases of S pyogenes bacteremia at an inner-city hospital. However, advanced age and the toxic shock-like syndrome were the most important predictors of mortality.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1995

Aeromonas and Plesiomonas species as bacterial agents of diarrhoea in urban and rural areas of Nigeria: antibiogram of isolates.

Two thousand four hundred stool samples comprising 1 200 each from diarrhoeal and non-diarrhoeal (control) cases with 600 of each category from urban and rural areas were screened for the prevalence of Aeromonas and Plesiomonas species in the different groups. Thirty (5 pc) and (14,8 pc) of Aeromonas species and 14 (2,3 pc) and 46 (7,7 pc) of Plesiomonas shigelloides were isolated from urban and rural areas respectively for diarrhoea cases. Only eight (1,3 pc) and 18 (3 pc) of Aeromonas spp. from urban and rural areas respectively and none of P. shigelloides were isolated from controls. Both organisms were more commonly associated with females than males. This may be attributable to the fact that both organisms are environmental water bacteria and in rural areas, because females engage more in domestic activities than males have more frequent contacts with the water sources such as rivers, streams, ponds. Most rural areas lack piped water supply. Diarrhoea due to both organisms was associated with fever and vomiting: mainly watery but mucoid and bloody stools were also noted. Antiobiogram of isolates showed over 70 pc resistance to ampicillin and streptomycin in both rural and urban areas whereas over 90 pc of both organisms were sensitive to nalidixic acid and gentamycin in urban and rural areas. Antibiogram of isolates was independent of age, sex and area of residence. Finally, for cases of infections due to Aeromonas spp. and P. shigelloides, the use of gentamycin, nalidixic acid and nitrofurantoin would be appropriate in both urban and rural areas.

Adolescent↗