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PubMed1985

What you say and how you say it: the contribution of speech content and voice quality to judgments of others.

In three studies, judgments based on separated channels (speech content, voice quality, face alone and body alone) were correlated with judgments based on combined channels (speech, face + speech, and face + body + speech). The judges observed spontaneous behavior in two different types of interview situations and rated various aspects of the behavior. Correlations between separated and combined channels varied significantly depending on the kind of behavior judged, the attribute rated, and whether other channels of information were available.

Emotions↗
PubMed1987

Universals and cultural differences in the judgments of facial expressions of emotion.

We present here new evidence of cross-cultural agreement in the judgement of facial expression. Subjects in 10 cultures performed a more complex judgment task than has been used in previous cross-cultural studies. Instead of limiting the subjects to selecting only one emotion term for each expression, this task allowed them to indicate that multiple emotions were evident and the intensity of each emotion. Agreement was very high across cultures about which emotion was the most intense. The 10 cultures also agreed about the second most intense emotion signaled by an expression and about the relative intensity among expressions of the same emotion. However, cultural differences were found in judgments of the absolute level of emotional intensity.

Adult↗
PubMed1992

Spontaneous trait inferences as self-generated primes: implications for conscious social judgment.

The priming literature has documented the influence of trait terms held outside of conscious awareness on later judgment relevant to the primed trait dimension. The present research demonstrated that spontaneous trait inferences can serve as self-generated primes. In Experiment 1, Ss instructed to memorize trait-implying sentences (thus spontaneously inferring traits outside of consciousness) showed assimilation effects in judgment. Ss instructed to form inferences from these sentences (thus consciously inferring traits) showed contrast effects. Experiment 2 demonstrated that these findings were due to semantic activation rather than to a general evaluative response. When evaluatively inconsistent trait constructs were primed, similar patterns of assimilation and contrast were found. Implications for the ubiquitous occurrence of priming through the process of social categorization are discussed.

Adult↗
PubMed1992

Judgments of genuine, suppressed, and faked facial expressions of pain.

The process of discriminating among genuine, suppressed, and faked expressions of pain was examined. Untrained judges estimated the severity of pain being experienced when viewing videotaped facial expressions of chronic pain patients undergoing a painful diagnostic test or dissimulating reactions. Verbal feedback as to whether pain was experienced also was provided, so as to be either consistent or inconsistent with the facial expression. Judges were able to distinguish genuine pain faces from baseline expressions but, relative to genuine pain faces, attributed more pain to faked faces and less pain to suppressed ones. Advance warning of deception did not improve discrimination but led to a more conservative or nonempathic judging style. Verbal feedback increased or decreased judgments, as appropriate, but facial information consistently was assigned greater weight. An augmenting model of the judgment process that attaches considerable importance to the context in which information is provided was supported.

Adult↗
PubMed1993

Behavioral manifestations of personality: an ecological approach to judgmental accuracy.

The present study concerns connections between personality traits, the behaviors by which they are manifest, and the behaviors by which they are judged. One hundred forty undergraduate Ss were videotaped in 2 social interactions, and 62 behaviors were coded from each tape. Separately, personality descriptions were obtained from knowledgeable informants. A pair of "strangers" viewed each videotape then also provided personality descriptions. Other Ss rated the diagnosticity of the 62 behaviors for each of the Big Five personality traits. The diagnosticity ratings predicted how behavioral cues would be used by strangers and were closely related to their actual relevance as indexed by their correlations with informants' judgments. These findings speak to the general accuracy of personality judgments, the development of methods to improve accuracy, and the value of reintegrating traditionally separate concerns of personality and social psychology.

Cues↗
PubMed1994

Shifting standards and stereotype-based judgments.

Four studies tested a model of stereotype-based shifts in judgment standards developed by M. Biernat, M. Manis, and T. E. Nelson (1991). The model suggests that subjective judgments of target persons from different social groups may fail to reveal the stereotyped expectations of judges, because they invite the use of different evaluative standards; more "objective" or common rule indicators reduce such standard shifts. The stereotypes that men are more competent than women, women are more verbally able than men, Whites are more verbally able than Blacks, and Blacks are more athletic than Whites were successfully used to demonstrate the shifting standards phenomenon. Several individual-difference measures were also effective in predicting differential susceptibility to standard shifts, and direct evidence was provided that differing comparison standards account for substantial differences in target ratings.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1996

Constructive biases in social judgment: experiments on the self-verification of question contents.

Merely thinking about a proposition can increase its subjective truth, even when it is initially denied. Propositions may trigger inferences that depend not on evidence for truth but only on the semantic match with relevant knowledge. In a series of experiments, participants were presented with questions implying positive or negative judgments of discussants in a videotaped talk show. Subsequent ratings were biased toward the question contents, even when the judges themselves initially denied the questions. However, this constructive bias is subject to epistemic constraints. Judgments were biased only when knowledge about the target's role (active agent vs. passive recipient role) was matched by the semantic-linguistic implications of propositions (including action verbs vs. state verbs).

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Emotional state and the use of stimulus dimensions in judgment.

Previous studies have demonstrated that, when they are emotional, individuals are more likely to attend to emotional stimuli. However, such work has not established that individuals attend to the emotional dimensions of complex stimuli or that such changes in focus of attention judgments. In the present experiments a multidimensional scaling analysis was used to assess the weights that happy, sad, and neutral-emotion participants gave to emotional and nonemotional dimensions of face stimuli in judgments of similarity. Compared to neutral-emotion participants, those in emotional states gave more weight to the emotional dimension of the faces, less weight to other face dimensions, and rated pairs of faces that expressed the same emotion as more similar. Emotion-congruent dimension use was also observed in one experiment. Results are discussed with respect to emotional response categories (P.M. Niedenthal & J.B. Halberstadt, 1995), the tendency for stimuli to cohere as categories on the basis of the emotional response they elicit in the perceiver.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Accuracy of judgments of sexual orientation from thin slices of behavior.

In this research the authors examined the accuracy of judging sexual orientation on the basis of brief observations or "thin slices" of nonverbal behavior. In Study 1, sexual orientation was judged more accurately than chance, with judgments being more accurate when based on dynamic nonverbal behavior (10-s and 1-s silent video segments) than on static information (a series of 8 still photographs). Gay men and lesbians were more accurate than heterosexuals in judging still photographs and 1-s clips but not in 10-s clips. In Study 2, judgments based on 10-s dynamic figural outline displays containing primarily gestural information were more accurate than chance.

Adult↗
PubMed1992

Rubbing your stomach while tapping your fingers: interference between motor planning and semantic judgments.

Previous research (Klatzky et al., 1989) shows that the time required to make sensible/nonsensible judgments about an action-object phrase (e.g., "rub your stomach") is reliably faster when the phrase is preceded by a cure representing a specific prototypical hand shape (vs. a neutral cue). The current experiments investigated the effects of preparing for an alternate task (finger tapping vs. syllable vocalization) on facilitatory priming of sensibility judgments. Preparation for finger tapping reduced the magnitude of the priming effect more than preparation for vocalization, suggesting that resources accessed during semantic processing of action-object phrases are also used during manual response preparation. The results support the existence of a system representing manual actions that is limited in the number of activities that can be represented at one time and that is not so general that it represents manual and vocal tract movements.

Adult↗
PubMed1998

Probing the locus of confidence judgments: experiments on the time to determine confidence.

Three experiments investigated the properties of the time to determine confidence to determine the processing locus for the judgment of confidence. Results suggest that when the primary decision is made under speed stress, confidence is determined postdecisionally and involves a memory-based, computational algorithm. This strategy frees the primary decision of processing time and permits the accurate diagnosis of decision errors. When the primary decision is made under accuracy stress, however, the determination of confidence is initiated, or can even be completed, during the primary decision process. This strategy permits confidence to be used in the adaptive regulation of the decisional parameters during the decision process but yields poorer diagnosticity of errors when they occur. The latter finding also implies that primary decision latencies include time to determine confidence, rendering such data difficult, if not impossible, to model empirically. Implications for contemporary decision models that provide a basis for confidence in human judgment are discussed.

Decision Making↗
PubMed2000

An exemplar-retrieval model of speeded same--different judgments.

R. M. Nosofsky and T. J. Palmeri's (1997) exemplar-based random-walk (EBRW) model of speeded classification is extended to account for speeded same--different judgments among integral-dimension stimuli. According to the model, an important component process of same--different judgments is that people store individual examples of experienced same and different pairs of objects in memory. These exemplar pairs are retrieved from memory on the basis of how similar they are to a currently presented pair of objects. The retrieved pairs drive a random-walk process for making same--different decisions. The EBRW predicts correctly that same responses are faster for objects lying in isolated than in dense regions of similarity space. The model also predicts correctly effects of same-identity versus same-category instructions and is sensitive to observers' past experiences with specific same and different pairs of objects.

Humans↗
PubMed1981

Internal representation of visual texture as the basis for the judgment of similarity.

The relationship between Fourier spectra of visual textures (represented both by the actual frequency components and by the response of four hypothetical channels selectively sensitive to spatial frequency) and the perceptual appearance of the textures was investigated. Thirty textures were synthesized by combining seven spatial frequencies whose amplitudes were randomly chosen and then scaled to give an overall contrast of .9. Similarity judgments were collected using both the method of triadic comparison (two subjects, 4,060 trials each) and the method of paired comparison (six subjects, 435 trials each). The similarity judgments were subjected to MDSCAL and INDSCAL dimensions were found to be optimally oriented in terms of spatial frequency information without rotation. The seven spatial frequency components accounted for 90.6% of the variance in the 3-D INDSCAL space, while the four channels accounted for 91.8% of the variance in the first two dimensions. The data further suggest that the four channels may interact in an opponent process manner. The results support the idea that the visual internal representation of stimuli is based on spatial frequency analysis rather than feature extraction.

Discrimination Learning↗
PubMed1978

Comment on internal feedback as a theory of judgment: a reply to Levin.

Levin's suggestion that internal feedback strategies be employed in judgmental and learning tasks is discussed. The predictions of an internal feedback notion are seen as inconsistent with Veit's ratio and difference task data. Scale-free frameworks and scale-convergence criteria used in previous research are described as useful techniques for separating integration from judgmental processes in information-integration as well as learning-task situations.

Feedback↗
PubMed1982

Differences in judgments of learning difficulty.

Academically successful and less successful fifth graders were asked to make judgments about the ease of understanding and remembering various sentences and were given the opportunity to attempt to remember some of them before being asked to judge new sets of sentences. The results of the first experiment indicate that, at the beginning of the experiment, the successful students were much more likely than their less successful peers to realize that sentences expressing arbitrary relationships were more difficult to remember. These differences became even greater after students were given the opportunity to attempt to remember some of the sentences they had judged initially. The memory performance of the successful students also improved as they became more familiar with the experimental task, but the performance of the less successful students did not. The results of the second experiment showed that less successful students who had received appropriate training were able to use information about the arbitrariness of relationships as the basis for their judgments of learning difficulty. The training also facilitated their ability to remember. Implications of these findings are discussed.

Child↗
PubMed2000

Why do categories affect stimulus judgment?

The authors tested a model of category effects on stimulus judgment. The model holds that the goal of stimulus judgment is to achieve high accuracy. For this reason, people place inexactly represented stimuli in the context of prior information, captured in categories, combining inexact fine-grain stimulus values with prior (category) information. This process can be likened to a Bayesian statistical procedure designed to maximize the average accuracy of estimation. If people follow the proposed procedure to maximize accuracy, their estimates should be affected by the distribution of instances in a category. In the present experiments, participants reproduced one-dimensional stimuli. Different prior distributions were presented. The experiments verified that people's stimulus estimates are affected by variations in a prior distribution in such a manner as to increase the accuracy of their stimulus reproductions.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

When standards are wide of the mark: nonselective superiority and inferiority biases in comparative judgments of objects and concepts.

People are frequently required to judge how particular group members measure up against others in their group. According to the local-comparisons-general-standards (LOGE) approach, in these member-to-group comparisons, people fail to use the normatively appropriate local (group) standard and are infelicitously affected by a more general standard (involving instances from outside the judged group). Within positive groups, target group members are judged superior to the other members of the group, and within negative groups, inferior. To date, these nonselective superiority and inferiority biases have been demonstrated solely in judgments about human beings. In 6 experiments, nonselective biases were found in perceptual, affective, and cognitive judgments of nonhuman targets, objects, and concepts, thus supporting a cognitive rather than a social account.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1985

Reminding as a basis for temporal judgments.

In the normal course of events, some events bring to mind earlier events. This reminding or, in the context of list learning experiments, study-phase retrieval can serve as a basis for the accurate judgment of the relative recencies of the two events in question. In this article, evidence for this position is presented in three experiments. By manipulations of encoding using visual imagery instructions and word associations, appropriate conditions were arranged for reminding to occur. The results of all three studies support the position that reminding provides a direct basis for later judgments of the relative recency of events.

Association↗