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PubMed2003

[Alcohol consumption, income and education in Norway, 1993-2000].

BACKGROUND: We have studied the trend in alcohol consumption by socio-economic status in Norway over the 1993-2000 period. Have differences in consumption been stable over time, or have they levelled off? MATERIAL AND METHODS: Our analysis is based on self-reported data from 6894 persons, stratified by year, sex, age, level of education, level of income, and where in Norway they lived. Bivariate and multiple analyses were performed. RESULTS: Alcohol consumption increased in all socio-economic groups over this period. Men consumed more than women; consumption increased with level of education and level of income. Income and level of education predicted alcohol consumption about equally well. The Oslo area had the highest consumption. INTERPRETATION: Alcohol consumption has increased in all socio-economic groups. It increases with level of education and higher income; men consume more than women.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Urban premature mortality in the U.S. between 1980 and 1990: changing roles of income inequality and social spending.

Measuring the effects of policy and social inequality is complicated because inequalities and policies may have delayed or accumulative effects on health. The objective of this study is to build on the body of work on population mortality and income inequality by investigating the association between income inequality and mortality at the city level at two points in time (1980 and 1990) as well as to determine whether indicators of 1980 social policies of cities are associated with 1990 mortality rates due to delayed or accumulative effects. We found that 1980 income inequality and police spending is associated with increased premature mortality for 1990. In conclusion, there appear to be long-term consequences of city levels of income inequality on population health, although this relationship is incompletely understood. While a lack of information on how inequality operates on health should not preclude us from making policy decisions aimed at creating greater social equality, for example, through improvements in education, we would benefit from longitudinal research on specific macroeconomic and environmental factors, inequality, and health. Establishing such causal relationships is critical in creating social policies that optimally promote health and well-being.

Health Status Indicators↗
PubMed2004

Unequal access: insurance instability among low-income workers and minorities.

Analysis of health insurance coverage and employment patterns from 1996 through 1999 reveals even higher uninsured rates and greater insurance instability among low-income adults and minorities than had been previously documented. Most low-income adults worked during the four years, but many had no or only intermittent job-based coverage. Low-income Hispanic adults were particularly hard hit: more than one-third (37%) of this group were never insured with private coverage, even though they worked all four years. Policies that expand coverage to low-income families could help reduce racial and ethnic disparities in access to care.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

The association between income, education, control over life and health in a large urban population of Poland.

OBJECTIVES: The objective of our study was to examine the relation of income, education and control over life with health self-evaluation and chronic diseases, e.g., hypertension, back illness, hypercholesterolemia, gastritis, coronary heart disease, and diabetes. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The data were collected in Lódź, a large industrial city of Poland, between 2001 and 2002, as a part of the Countrywide Integrated Noncommunicable Diseases Intervention Programme. The surveys were directed at random samples of the adult population, 1837 men and women aged 18-64 years. A questionnaire completed during a doctor's visit was used for data collection. RESULTS: All chronic illnesses were age-related. A strong association was also seen between chronic illnesses and poor control over life. People who reported poor control over life were more likely to suffer from any of the studied chronic illnesses; this relationship was mostly pronounced in case of gastritis. The incidence of coronary heart disease and back illnesses was very strongly related with low education, whereas low income with hypertension, back illnesses and coronary heart disease, however this relation was not so strongly manifested. Seventy percent of the study population rated their health as "good" and 30% as "poor". The worst results of health self-evaluation were found in older people with low education, low income, poor control over life and chronic illnesses. CONCLUSIONS: Poor control over life was associated with chronic illnesses. Our study suggest that higher education and higher income in the period of socioeconomic changes are the explanatory variables for good health.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Physician incomes in rural and urban America.

Amid concerns that too few physicians practice in many rural areas, lower income potential is cited as one obstacle to attracting and retaining rural physicians. Congress has responded by increasing Medicare payment rates to virtually all physicians practicing in rural areas. However, average physician incomes in rural and urban areas do not differ significantly, even after accounting for differences in physician work effort, specialty, and other physician and practice characteristics, according to a new national study by the Center for Studying Health System Change (HSC). Moreover, after accounting for the local cost of living, rural physician incomes on average provide about 13 percent more purchasing power than urban physician incomes.

Economics, Medical↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Life expectancy by employment status, income, and education in the National Longitudinal Mortality Study.

Based on data from the National Longitudinal Mortality Study for 1979-85, life expectancies are estimated for white men and white women by education, by family income, and by employment status. Life expectancy varies directly with amount of schooling and with family income. Differences in life expectancy at age 25 between the highest and the lowest levels of education completed were about 6 years for white men and about 5 years for white women. For family income, differences between the highest and the lowest income groups were about 10 years for white men and 4.3 years for white women. The largest differences in life expectancy were between employment categories. At age 25, white men in the labor force lived on average about 12 more years than those not in the labor force, and white women lived on average about 9 more years. For those who were unable to work compared with those in the labor force, the difference for white men was about 20 years; for white women, 29 years. Results in this study showed much the same differentials in life expectancy for education as the earlier Kitagawa-Hauser study.

Adult↗
PubMed1990

The contributions of income, education and changing marital status to weight change among US men.

The prevalence of overweight in men varies with socioeconomic and marital status. To explore the origin of these associations, we studied the effects of family income, education, and changing marital status on change in body mass index (BMI, kg/m2) over 10 years in a representative sample of US men. The subjects were 1552 white and black US men who entered the Health and Nutrition Examination Survey-I (in 1971-75) at ages 25-44 and were re-evaluated a decade later (in 1982-84). After adjusting for socio-demographic factors, baseline BMI, smoking and physical activity, the mean 10-year change in BMI was greater for men with 12 years of education (difference = 0.31 BMI units (95 percent CI 0.04-0.59) ) or with less than 12 years (difference 0.58 (0.22-0.94) ) compared with men who studied beyond 12th grade. Ten-year weight changes were also defined categorically as major weight gain (BMI change greater than or equal to +4 units) or major weight loss (BMI change less than or equal to -2 units). By multiple logistic regression analysis, the odds of experiencing major weight gain were independently associated with low family income (odds ratio (OR) = 1.8 (95 percent CI, 1.0-3.3) ) compared with favorable income, and with becoming married (OR = 3.3 (1.7-6.3) ) or remaining unmarried (OR = 2.1 (1.1-4.2) ) compared with men who were consistently married. The risk of major weight loss was independently associated with marriage ending (OR = 1.8 (1.0-3.3) ) or with remaining unmarried (OR = 2.5 (1.3-4.7) ). A US public health strategy for the prevention of men's weight gain should focus on men with little education or low family incomes and those who are unmarried. There may also be a benefit to preventive weight-gain counseling for men as they enter marriage.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Taxing the income of the elderly].

If we agree that retirement income means those receipts past the age limit of 64 years, there will be a comparable situation for taxation. Such comparison shows that membership in the public annuity insurance gives strong advantages because of lower taxation. This uneven situation should be ended in the future by the opinion of the Bundesverfassungsgericht (Supreme court of constitutional affairs). There are two ways to solve this problem. Either the whole taxation of seniority income follows the rules of social security taxation, or the taxation of social security must loose its priority. The author prefers the second, because he argues that the social security taxation is wrong and irreparable: The author offers a general application of the "intertemporal correspondence principle" of taxation. This means that income can be taxed only once. Under this rule he prefers the "ex post taxation" of retirement income for reasons of justice, practicality, and economic principles.

Aged↗
PubMed1989

The income--fertility relationship: effect of the net price of a child .

This article examines the relationship between income and completed family size in empirical fertility models. The relationship, which is hypothesized to be positive, often is negative in empirical studies. This perverse result is thought to occur because of the many correlations between income and other factors that affect fertility. In this research, these other factors--such as the net price of a child, the opportunity cost of the wife's time, and supply factors--are statistically controlled, and the income effect is positive and significant. When the net price of a child is not controlled, however, the income effect becomes negative and significant.

Child Care↗
PubMed1986

Backyard mosquito larval habitat availability and use as influenced by census tract determined resident income levels.

One hundred and eighty premises in each of three distinct economic income levels within the urbanized area of East Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana were inspected for artificial containers producing mosquitoes. Census tracts, and their accompanying descriptive statistics were used to objectively quantify each of the income levels studied. Differences, presumably due to living conditions associated with income level, were found for the amount, type and condition of the containers encountered in each area, as well as between species composition and the extent of production. Overall, low income areas produced more mosquitoes than either of the other two areas, mainly as a result of the types of containers present.

Animals↗
PubMed1987

Income of retirement-aged persons in the United States.

This article reviews the composition and level of retirement income in the United States and how this has changed over time, focusing on two overlapping but distinct groups--the entire population aged 65 or older, and recent retirees. Changes in the composition of income of the aged over the past 20-30 years, including greatly expanded Social Security and pension coverage and an increasing number of persons with retirement savings, have improved the economic status of the aged not only in comparison with the aged in earlier years, but also in comparison with younger adults who derive most of their income from earnings. New retired workers are better off than the total aged population in several respects. The younger cohorts now in the labor force will spend more of their working lives in the more favorable conditions now present than was true of past new beneficiaries or the aged as a whole. It is, therefore, not unreasonable to expect that today's workers will enjoy more and larger pensions and increased income from savings to supplement their Social Security benefits when they retire.

Aged↗
PubMed1979

Income of the population aged 55 and older, 1976.

This article inaugurates a biennial series of reports on the income of persons aged 55 and older. The survey on which it is based updates information on the broad economic picture for a cross-section of this population and forms the basis for an analysis of trends in the financial status of the group as a whole. In 1976, persons aged 55--61 were generally working full-time, not receiving income from pensions, and married. Those aged 73 and older were predominantly not working, mostly recipients of retirement pensions, and likely to be widows. Most persons aged 65 and older were receiving social security benefits; those with neither earnings nor a second pension constituted the largest subgroup and had the lowest median income. Married couples, as a group, were substantially better off financially than nonmarried persons because they were younger, two-person rather than one-person units, and had one member who was a man. Blacks were less likely than whites to receive pension income other than social security benefits, and their median benefits and earnings were both lower.

Black or African American↗
PubMed1983

More doctors: what will they cost? Physician income as supply expands.

During the 1970s, expenditure for physicians' services rose by $12.7 billion (in 1979 dollars), but only about one fifty of this amount could be attributed to an increase in number of physicians relative to population. Other factors, chiefly demographic changes and greater insurance coverage, were responsible for the bulk of higher expenditures. Despite the growth in number of physicians, real income of individual physicians remained virtually constant. Maintenance of real income was not, however, appreciably dependent on physicians inducing an unwarranted demand for their services. We predict that as the physician supply expands by 25% to 35% during the 1980s, real payments to physicians will increase by some $14 to $20 billion (1979) dollars. As in the past decade, however, only about one fifth of the amount will be attributable to an increase in physician supply. Gross income of individual physicians is likely to ri se by 10% to 15% (in 1979 dollars) over the decade, but net income probably will show little increase or may even fall slightly.

Fees, Medical↗
PubMed1984

Food resources of low-income households in Southwest Mississippi.

Demographic data and food resources were studied for 1,400 households in seven counties in Southwest Mississippi. The results were compared for industrialized and non-industrialized counties and the urban areas. Household incomes and the educational levels of household heads were far below the national level. Hunger is still prevalent among those with the lowest incomes and the least education. Since most of the household heads with lower incomes either were unemployed or had unskilled jobs, the government was their main food resource. Welfare accounted for 25% and Food Stamps for 30%. The next important source was the school. Such critical conditions as lower income, limited education, unemployment, hunger, and need for government assistance were more prevalent in non-industrialized counties than in industrialized counties and the urban areas. The government assistance programs for food are necessary to prevent hunger, to maintain nutritional adequacy, and, consequently, to reduce medical bills. This is especially true for the poverty-level families, who need the federal food programs for daily survival.

Educational Status↗
PubMed1981

Income and living arrangements among poor aged singles.

It is generally agreed that income plays an important part in determining the living arrangements of unmarried old persons. Numerous studies of later life have concluded that large numbers of old persons live with their friends, adult children, and other relatives simply because they cannot afford to maintain separate homes of their own. The literature contains few references, however, to the effect of income change on the living arrangements of persons after they have become old and poor. This article focuses on the correlates of living arrangements among unmarried older welfare recipients in 1973, and then examines the effect of income change on living arrangements in 1974. Logit analysis identifies several patterns of household change associated with income increase and decrease but, overall, the capacity to care for oneself was the best predictor of living arrangement in 1974.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed1980

Racial differences in per capita income, 1960-76: the importance of household size, headship, and labor force participation.

Racial differences in average per capita income are decomposed, as are changes over time for both races. The 1960-76 decline in household size accounted for 13 percent of the per capita income improvement of both races. Whereas real increases in earnings of husbands contributed most to improvements in well-being in husband-wife households, increases in income from sources other than earnings were most important to female headed households. During a period in which a growing proportion of both races resided in female headed households and racial differences in living arrangements widened, the per capita income of female headed households relative to husband-wife households declined.

Black or African American↗
PubMedDate not supplied

A reexamination of the association between HOME scores and income.

This study, which represents another look at the relationship between the HOME Inventory and income, uses data from the Infant Health and Development Program (IHDP), a multisite, longitudinal study of low-birth-weight preterm infants. Two versions of the HOME Inventory were used: The Infant/Toddler (IT-HOME), at 12 months of age, and the Early Childhood (EC-HOME), at 36 months of age. Predictor variables were income, ethnicity, maternal education, parity, gestational age, marital status, maternal age, and site. HOME scores were positively correlated with income. However, after controlling for the other variables in the models, the portion of the variance in HOME scores uniquely explained by income was quite low (IT-HOME, 5.1%; EC-HOME, 4.2%). Finally, the relationship between HOME scores and four child characteristics (cognitive development, growth, maladaptive behavior, and social competence) measured when the child was 36 months old were investigated using correlation. The results indicated that the quality of the home environment, as measured by the HOME Inventory, is related to children's development.

Adult↗
PubMed1994

Protection against income loss during the first 6 months of illness or injury.

This note has reviewed the protection of workers against income loss during the first 6 months of illness or injury. The national income loss due to short-term sickness and disability during the first 6 months of illness, as expressed by pre-tax wages, was about $69.6 billion in 1991. Of this amount, about $46.5 billion (66.8 percent) was replaced by income-protection programs, including paid sick leave; group insurance; temporary disability insurance, under statutory State provisions; individual insurance; workers' compensation; general assistance; and the 6th month of the Social Security Disability Insurance program. In 1991, within the private sector, wage and salary workers lost $47.2 billion because of nonoccupational illnesses or injuries, of which $17.6 billion (or 37.3 percent) was replaced. Coverage against income lost because of illness in the U.S. workforce favors full-time professional and technical employees with longer service in large or medium firms, and especially favors public sector employees. The lowest level of coverage is provided to part-time employees with limited seniority who work in production and related areas in small, private establishments. About 70 percent of wage and salary workers in the private sector have some protection through their employment against earnings losses caused by short-term illness or injury; 44 percent of these workers have short-term disability insurance, and half have sick leave coverage.

Data Collection↗