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PubMed2003

Precursors, consequences and implications for stability and change in pre-adolescent antisocial behaviors.

Although much of the evidence stresses the stability of dysfunctional behavior throughout the life cycle, other evidence suggests that stability of antisocial behavior is a matter of degree. In this work we determine the degree of stability of such behavior in preadolescence and how this is influenced by age, gender, social structures, and family processes. Also, we explore whether change in the level of antisocial behavior impacts upon other important developmental regimes such as health and educational performance. We use a large, 2 wave, nationally representative sample of preadolescent children, and focus on children 4-9 years of age at wave 1 (n=6,846). We employ a cluster analysis across a series of behavioral variables to determine levels of antisocial behavior and then examine the stability of antisocial behavior over time and identify the precursors and consequences associated with movement into and out of these behavioral clusters. Antisocial behavior is more stable in boys and older children. Structural factors--age of the mother, number of children in the household, and having a single parent--along with family factors--hostile parenting and maternal depression--raise the likelihood of increases in and lower the likelihood of decreases in antisocial behavior, although there are notable differences by gender of the child and initial level of antisocial behavior. Consequences of change in antisocial behavior include scholastic performance, high levels of school mobility, school-parent contacts, and health perceptions. The implications of these findings for prevention and intervention programs are discussed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Metabolic consequences of atypical antipsychotic drugs.

Atypical antipsychotic drugs have become the treatment of choice for psychotic disorders. However, these medications, though certainly superior in many respects to the more traditional medications, have been shown to have a number of untoward consequences. Understanding of the metabolic consequences of these medications is essential for the psychiatrist. The possible development of diabetes, weight gain, and hypertriglyceridemia in patients taking atypical antipsychotics makes it imperative that the prescribing physician regularly monitor patients on these agents. One possible monitoring scheme is outlined and recommendations for treatment are discussed.

Antipsychotic Agents↗
PubMed1997

Management in general practice significantly reduced psychosocial consequences of female urinary incontinence.

Urinary incontinence is a common health problem among women, and a spectrum of psychosocial problems is associated with this disorder. We have investigated how psychosocial impact changed during a management programme for urinary incontinence in general practice. One hundred and five women seeking help for urinary incontinence were treated with conservative treatment options. Psychosocial consequences, grouped as mental distress (nine items), practical inconveniences (five items), and social restrictions (11 items) were noted before treatment, and after 3, 6 and 12 months follow-up. Urge symptoms, high degree of severity, and long duration were associated with higher psychosocial impact. During treatment, psychosocial impact was significantly reduced and the degree of impact in the three consequence groups was reduced to about one third compared with before treatment. In conclusion, changes in psychosocial impact during a management programme occur as a response to successful treatment. These findings support the view that female urinary incontinence can be successfully treated in general practice.

Activities of Daily Living↗
PubMed1997

Effect of locus of control and consideration of future consequences on time tradeoff utilities for current health.

Comments from subjects undergoing utility assessment suggest that personality traits may affect responses. We sought to describe the association between time-tradeoffs utility for current health and measures of two personality traits: (1) perceived control over one's life and (2) concern over immediate vs. future outcomes. One hundred subjects were recruited from the cafeteria of a large tertiary care hospital. Time-tradeoff utilities were assessed for current health relative to perfect health and death. Subjects also completed two previously validated scales, the Locus of Control (LOC), and Consideration of Future Consequences (CFC) instruments. The interview failure rate was less than 3%. The correlation between LOC score and utility for current health was modest (Spearman's rho = 0.196, p = 0.071), but increased substantially when subjects unwilling to trade were excluded (Spearman's rho = 0.33, p = 0.0043). The CFC scale was weakly correlated with utility for current health (Spearman's rho = 0.12, p = 0.2676). The Consideration of Future Consequences scale explains little of the variation in time-tradeoff utilities. In contrast, Locus of Control appears to partially explain the variation in time-tradeoff utilities for current health, even after controlling for health status.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Costs and consequences of stem cell transplantation in children.

Economic evaluation is a comparison of the costs and consequences of alternative healthcare interventions. Consequences are best assessed as utilities; quality-adjusted measures of effectiveness. Although few substantive data are available, it appears that hematopoietic stem cell transplantation is even more cost-effective in children than in adults.

Child↗
PubMed2002

Consequences of elevated CO2, augmented nitrogen-deposition and soil type on the soluble nitrogen and sulphur in the phloem of beech (Fagus sylvatica) and spruce (Picea abies) in a competitive situation.

Mixed spruce-beech plantations grown in large open-top chambers (OTC) were used to study consequences of elevated CO2, nitrogen-deposition and soil type on plant internal nitrogen and sulphur cycling of juvenile beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) and spruce (Picea abies Karst.) in a competitive situation. Processes of re-cycling as a consequence of protein turnover during leaf senescence in autumn were of further interest. For this purpose, phloem sap was collected in September 1998 and analysed for the composition and concentrations of organic and inorganic nitrogen and sulphur compounds. The phloem exudate of spruce showed higher total soluble non-protein nitrogen (TSNN) concentration on calcareous soil than on acidic soil, independent of the treatment. N-fertilization increased the N-concentration of phloem exudate significantly on both soil types, mainly by an increase of Arg and Gln concentrations. Elevated CO2 slightly increased TSNN on calcareous, but not on acidic soil. The combination of elevated CO2 and augmented N-deposition induced a further increase of TSNN on calcareous soil, but caused a lower N-effect on TSNN on acidic soil. Arg, the main TSNN component in phloem exudate, mediated this effect. Since Arg is considered to be a major nitrogen storage compound, it is concluded that in autumn elevated CO2 and augmented N-deposition, influence storage of N rather than N-supply of spruce. An effect of elevated CO2 and augmented N-deposition on GSH and sulphate concentrations in phloem exudate of spruce was not observed on acidic soil. On calcareous soil augmented N-deposition enhanced, elevated CO2 decreased phloem exudate GSH contents. In combination, elevated CO2 compensated the positive effect of N-deposition. The effects of elevated CO2 and augmented N-deposition on phloem sap N- and S-contents described above were not observed for beech trees. Apparently, elevated CO2 and augmented N-deposition did not affect plants internal S and N cycling of beech grown in spruce-beech plantations.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2003

Psychosocial consequences of dental fear and anxiety.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to examine the negative psychosocial impacts of dental anxiety in a sample of dentally fearful and anxious individuals recruited from the general population. The associations between psychosocial impacts, dental anxiety scale (DAS) scores and other severe fears were explored. METHODS: One hundred and thirty-five subjects who were anxious or fearful about dental treatment were divided into low and high general fear groups based on the number of other severe fears they reported. Negative psychosocial impacts were assessed using a modified form of the scale developed by Kent et al. (1996). This consisted of three dimensions: psychological reactions, social relationships and avoidance/inhibition. Other measures included self-ratings of oral, general and emotional health and scales to assess self-esteem and morale. RESULTS: Overall, 93.1% of subjects reported one or more impacts. Those in the high-fear group had higher psychosocial impact scores than those in the low-fear group (means of 4.19 vs. 2.85; P < 0.05). Differences were most marked with respect to psychological consequences and avoidance/inhibition. The high-fear group had scores indicative of lower self-esteem and lower morale. Forward stepwise linear and logistic regression analyses indicated that both dental anxiety and general fearfulness contributed to these negative outcomes. However, the latter was a more consistent predictor in that it entered six of seven models generated while the former entered only four. CONCLUSION: The study indicated that dental fear and anxiety have pervasive psychosocial consequences, and that these are more marked among subjects with high levels of general fearfulness. It also provided evidence of the validity of a modified form of the psychosocial impact scale developed by Kent et al. (1996).

Adult↗
PubMed1992

Is behavior analysis undergoing selection by consequences?

The legacy of B. F. Skinner's life is a natural science of behavior. The generality of its basic functional relations has led, by induction, to the unifying principle of selection by consequences, which accounts for morphological, behavioral, and cultural evolution. This principle both predicts and explains the observation that the science itself is becoming the object of differential selection in our culture. Public policy is increasingly being framed in terms of the effects of consequences on behavior, as illustrated by examples from education, economics, and politics. Survival of our culture may depend on our skill in managing this process.

Behavior Therapy↗
PubMed1998

An overview of the nature, causes, and consequences of abusive family relationships. Toward differentiating maltreatment and violence.

Despite gaps in research, this review argues for distinguishing family maltreatment from family violence, a differentiation between minimal or moderate abuse and serious endangerment, physical injury, or sexual violation. Most acts now defined as violent or abusive are moderate, and stressful life circumstances contribute to their development. Research suggests that abuse may develop through multiple pathways. The consequences of abuse appear to be general, but more commonalities may be found by examining more subtle and complex effects. Many interventions have attempted to prevent or treat family violence and its consequences, and several show promise. More systematic research is needed, but several changes in intervention seem warranted now. For instance, (a) mental health professionals should not be required to report maltreatment while a family is engaged in therapy; (b) the social service system needs to rediscover its roots in supporting families under stress, including in cases of moderate maltreatment; and (c) swift and decisive legal intervention is needed in cases of serious family violence.

Child↗
PubMed1990

Interpersonal perceptions and consequences of depressive-significant other relationships: a naturalistic study of college roommates.

We investigated social perceptions and consequences of depression and anxiety in roommate relationships. Mildly depressed, anxious but nondepressed, and nondepressed-nonanxious students (targets) and normal, same-sex roommates (a) rated the interpersonal impact on themselves of typical associations with their roommates and (b) judged their own interpersonal impact. Only depressed men received negative evaluations and emotional reactions from their roommates. However, depressed women reported more negative reactions to their normal roommates than vice versa. Finally, depressed targets perceived their interpersonal impact negatively, whereas their normal roommates perceived their own interpersonal impact as overly positive. These findings suggest that negative relationships between depressives and nondepressed others may be attributable, at least in part, to both participants' misperceptions of their social behavior and its consequences.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1989

Motivational basis of dissonance: the singular role of behavioral consequences.

This article provides the first empirical test of the idea that discrepancy is not needed in order to arouse cognitive dissonance. Dissonance was aroused when Ss felt responsible for some aversive consequence, regardless of whether their behavior was consistent (writing a proattitudinal essay) or inconsistent (a counterattitudinal essay) with beliefs. The data demonstrate that in both situations, dissonance is aroused. This result, based on the dissonance motivation model of Cooper and Fazio (1984), strongly suggests that the motivational basis for dissonance is the felt responsibility for aversive consequences. The theoretical implications of this outlook are explored, including a discussion of the many ways that it expands the applicability of dissonance theory.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

The "relative self": informational and judgmental consequences of comparative self-evaluation.

Results of 5 studies demonstrated that self-evaluative comparisons have 2 distinct informational consequences with opposing judgmental effects: They selectively increase the accessibility of standard-consistent self-knowledge and provide an evaluative reference point. The first informational consequence produces assimilation in self-evaluative judgments, whereas the latter yields contrast. Using a lexical decision task, Study 1 demonstrated that a social comparison selectively increases the accessibility of standard-consistent self-knowledge. Study 2 showed that this effect also holds for comparisons with objective standards. Studies 3 and 4 revealed that the same comparison may lead to assimilation on objective and contrast on subjective self-judgments. Finally, Study 5 demonstrated that assimilation results for comparisons with relevant and irrelevant standards, whereas contrast occurs only for relevant standards.

Adult↗
PubMed1998

Long-term effects of HIV counseling and testing for women: behavioral and psychological consequences are limited at 18 months posttest.

Behavioral and psychological consequences of HIV counseling and testing (HIV C&T) for women were examined in a longitudinal, prospective study. Women who received HIV C&T at community health clinics (n = 106) and a comparison group of never-tested women (n = 54) were interviewed five times over 18 months. There was no change in risk behaviors as a consequence of testing: tested and untested women engaged in high-risk sexual behavior at baseline and 18 months later. Tested women reported more anxiety, depression, and intrusive thoughts about AIDS than did untested women. Although tested women were more concerned about AIDS, their potential risk factors over the study period generally were equivalent to those for untested women. HIV counseling and testing should be considered one aspect of a broader program of HIV prevention. Identification of alternative interventions must be a public health priority.

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome↗
PubMed1988

Comparison of the interoceptive sensory consequences of CCK, LiCl, and satiety in rats.

In three experiments we assessed the degree to which ad lib feeding, injection of cholecystokinin (CCK), and injection of lithium chloride (LiCl) produce states with similar sensory consequences. In each experiment, two groups of rats were trained to use cues arising from food deprivation and satiation as discriminative signals for shock. One group was shocked when deprived but not when nondeprived. The other group received the reversed discrimination. Testing began when incidence of freezing was greater under the shocked deprivation than under the nonshocked deprivation condition. In Experiment 1, the rats were tested under 24-hr food deprivation after injections of CCK, LiCl, and saline (in counterbalanced order). We reasoned that if either CCK or LiCl induce satiety-like states, they should promote patterns of responding different from those produced by saline but similar to those produced by ad lib feeding. The effects of CCK on freezing did not differ from those of saline, whereas both CCK and LiCl had effects that were different from ad lib feeding. This pattern of results was also obtained when deprivation level during training and testing was reduced to 8 hr (Experiment 1A) and also when rats received small amounts of food in conjunction with CCK (Experiment 2). The intubation of a high-calorie stomach load (Experiment 1A) produced a response profile like that observed after free feeding. Freezing after LiCl treatment differed from that observed after free feeding and from that found after injection of CCK. The results indicate that rats can differentiate between the sensory consequences of the states produced by CCK, by LiCl, and by ad lib feeding.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Sexual assault and other types of sexual harassment by workplace personnel: a comparison of antecedents and consequences.

Although sexual assault by workplace personnel is widely viewed as a type of sexual harassment, little is known about whether these overlapping constructs may possess some unique characteristics. This article compares the theoretical antecedents and consequences of sexual assault by workplace personnel and other types of sexual harassment among 22,372 women employed in the U.S. military. Path analysis revealed that low sociocultural and organizational power are associated with an increased likelihood of both types of victimization. Organizational climate and job gender context are directly associated with sexual harassment but are only indirectly associated with sexual assault by workplace personnel. Both types of victimization are associated with a variety of negative outcomes, but the pattern of negative consequences differs.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

The aggression paradox: understanding links among aggression, sensation seeking, and the consideration of future consequences.

Four studies involving 573 female and 272 male college students demonstrated that multiple forms and measures of aggression were associated with high levels of sensation seeking, impulsivity, and a focus on the immediate consequences of behavior. Multiple regression analyses and structural equation models supported a theoretical model based on the general aggression model (C.A. Anderson & B.J. Bushman. 2002), positing that hostile cognition and negative affect mediate the relationships between the aforementioned individual differences and aggression. Sensation seeking also predicted a desire to engage in physical and verbal aggression. The final study demonstrated that relative to those scoring low, individuals scoring high on the consideration of future consequences are only less aggressive when aggression is likely to carry future costs.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1997

Biological consequences of drug administration: implications for acute and chronic tolerance.

The authors presented a model that extrapolates the biological consequences of drug administration to account for acute and chronic tolerance. Drug-induced changes of regulated parameters provide detectable perturbations to which the brain responds. With experience, these centrally mediated responses are learned and can be activated in the absence of the drug-induced perturbation. Although neural responses following drug administration are often obscured, the model shows how these responses may be identified and provides a reinterpretation of drug conditioning paradigms. The authors made comparisons between the present empirical model of drug administration and existing theories of drug tolerance. The authors also presented a unified framework for understanding the consequences of repeated drug use and made specific predictions as to the relationships among acute and chronic tolerance, drug sensitization, and individual differences in vulnerability to drug addiction.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

The positive and negative consequences of multiple-choice testing.

Multiple-choice tests are commonly used in educational settings but with unknown effects on students' knowledge. The authors examined the consequences of taking a multiple-choice test on a later general knowledge test in which students were warned not to guess. A large positive testing effect was obtained: Prior testing of facts aided final cued-recall performance. However, prior testing also had negative consequences. Prior reading of a greater number of multiple-choice lures decreased the positive testing effect and increased production of multiple-choice lures as incorrect answers on the final test. Multiple-choice testing may inadvertently lead to the creation of false knowledge.

Choice Behavior↗