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PubMedDate not supplied

Effect of chronic exercise on immunoglobin, complement and leukocyte types in volleyball players and athletes.

BACKGROUND: The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of various sports disciplines on basic elements of the acquired and natural defense systems and to compare their results with that of non-sporting controls. MATERIALS/METHODS: The study included 15 sedentary (Group 1), 15 volleyball players (Group 2) and 15 long distance running athletes (Group 3). The VO2 Max for the groups was determined by subjecting the individuals to a 20 meter Shuttle run test. Immunoglobin and complement levels were measured by the turbidometric method. Leukocyte counts were made through peripheral blood smear examination. RESULTS: The IgA levels in sedentary living individuals was found to be lower than that in volleyball and athlete groups while that in athletes was in turn lower than that in volleyball players (p<0.05). In volleyball players the IgG level was significantly higher than both the sedentary living individuals and the athletes (p<0.05). IgM however, showed a significantly higher level in the sedentary group than in both athletes and volleyball players. The C3 levels in athletes was significantly lower than that of volleyball players and sedentary individuals (p<0.05), while the C4 levels were higher in the volleyball group (p<0.05). The leukocyte, eosinophil, and monocyte counts in the athletes were also significantly lower than those in the volleyball and sedentary groups (p<0.05). The values for the sedentary group on the other hand however, was found to be lower than those of the volleyball players (p<0.05). The neutrophil counts was lower in the sedentary group than in the volleyball group (p<0.05). The levels in the athlete group was lower than that in the volleyball group, however (p<0.05). The lymphocyte counts in volleyball players was higher than that in the sedentary group (p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: In conclusion, changes in the immune parameters were found to be dependent on the type of physical exercise performed on regular basis. Considering the protective antibody response in those performing regular sports, moderate exercise carried out on regular basis can be said to affect positively mononuclear and polymorphonuclear phagocytic cells--the basic elements of the natural immune system.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Allergic rhinitis and asthma in the athlete.

The pathogenesis, epidemiology, presentation, diagnosis, and management of allergic rhinitis and asthma in the recreational and elite athlete are discussed in this study. There is an increased prevalence of allergic rhinitis and asthma in the elite athlete related to the enhanced ventilation with entrainment of inhalants including allergens as well as irritants such as pollutants in the urban athlete, chlorine in the swimmer, and cold air in the hockey player in the training environment. The history as well as objective exercise challenge and skin-prick tests to inhalants or in vitro allergen testing are essential in conjunction with a comprehensive physical exam to diagnosis of allergic rhinitis and/or asthma in the athlete. This is particularly necessary for the elite or competitive athlete who often has poor insight into the symptoms. Management is with appropriate inhaled steroids and/or leukotriene antagonists for the upper (nasal) and lower airways with avoidance of inhaled allergens and/or appropriate immunotherapy where relevant. The optimal management of the athlete results in minimum medication with minimum adverse side effects and optimal outcome. Proper adherence to antidoping regulations and application for use exemption in competitive athletes is recommended. The athlete should be encouraged to pursue the selected sports activity without limitations.

Bronchial Hyperreactivity↗
PubMed2006

Prevalence and occurrence of stress urinary incontinence in elite women athletes.

OBJECTIVE: 1) To assess the prevalence of stress urinary incontinence (SUI) and urge urinary incontinence (UTI) in elite women athletes versus the general female population, and 2) to analyze the conditions of occurrence of urine loss in search of etiological clues in elite athletes. DECISION: An anonymous self-questionnaire was collected transversally from women aged 18 to 35 years. The exposed group was composed of elite female athletes; the non-exposed group was made up of women in the same age range accepting to answer the questionnaire. RESULTS: A total of 157 answers from elite athletes and 426 from control subjects were available for analysis. Urinary incontinence prevalence was 28% for athletes and 9.8% for control subjects (p = .001). There was no significant difference in the relative prevalence of SUI between the athletes and control subjects. Athletes reported urine loss more frequently during the second part of the training session (p < 0.0003), and the second part of competition (p < 0.05). Urinary incontinence prevalence was 9.87% in physically-active control subjects versus 9.84% in sedentary control subjects (NS). Even a small quantity of urine loss was felt to be embarrassing. Most incontinent women did not dare to speak of their condition to anybody. CONCLUSIONS: There is a very high prevalence of urinary incontinence in women athletes. Detailed studies of the patho-physiology of this problem are necessary to formulate preventive recommendations.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1991

[Efficacy and tolerance of LA 50 mg nicardipine in hypertensive athletes].

The beneficial effects of physical exercise on the blood pressure are widely recognised. Nevertheless, some athletes remain hypertensive and the treatment of this population makes special demands with respect to treatment efficacy and tolerability, the respect of athletic performance and problems of proscribed substances. For example, the Athletic Boards have prohibited betablockers and diuretics in competitive athletes. The aim of this study was to assess nicardipine LA 50 mg administered twice daily in the special context of hypertensive athletes. Thirty-eight athletes with mild or moderate hypertension undergoing endurance training were included in this double blind trial versus placebo. After two months treatment, the systolic and diastolic blood pressures were significantly lower at rest in the nicardipine than in the placebo group (delta SBP = -18.9 vs -4.1 mmHg, p less than 0.001; delta DBP = -15.7 vs -4.1 mmHg, p less than 0.01). In addition the maximum SBP on effort was significantly lower in the nicardipine group (200 vs 215 mmHg, p less than 0.05). On the other hand, no difference was observed between the two groups as regards the maximum oxygen consumption (delta VO2 max = 6.2 vs -0.4 ml/min/kg, NS) and duration of effort (13.75 vs 12.32 min, NS), showing that athletic performance was unchanged in the group treated by nicardipine LA. These results suggest that treatment with nicardipine LA fulfills the special criteria of hypertensive athletes.

Adult↗
PubMed1991

[Spectrum analysis of the variability of heart rate in athletes].

OBJECTIVES: Characterize power spectrum pattern of the heart rate variability and assessment of the relative contributions of sympathetic and parasympathetic cardiac nervous system control in athletes. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective study of athletes and sedentary healthy control group sex and age matched. SUBJECT AND METHODS: 8 athletes, 3 female and 5 male, swimming (4), canoeing (2) and cycling (2), aged 17.4 +/- 3.6 years, and 8 sedentary healthy controls. ECG signals were recorded after a period of 15 minutes in supine rest with controlled breathing at 15 cycles/min. Signal acquisition was done at 300 samples/sec. From 512 consecutive heart beats, we calculated the average, the standard deviation, the maximum and the minimum values and the rate between the longest and the shortest R-R interval (E/I). We also calculated, after computing the fast Fourier transform, the total spectrum power, the low frequency component (LF, from 0.01 to 0.15 Hz) and the high frequency component (HF, greater than 0.15 Hz) and its ratio (LF/HF). RESULTS: The average R-R interval was 921 +/- 154.2 msecs and 673.2 +/- 98 msecs, the standard deviation was 72.5 and 29.4 msecs and the ratio E/I 1.63 +/- 0.14 and 1.28 +/- 0.08, respectively for athletes and control group. Differences between groups were significant (p less than 0.01) for all parameters, with higher variability in the athletes. Both spectral bands (LF and HF) and higher power in athletes (LF = 0.54 +/- 0.23 and HF = 0.76 +/- 0.14) than in the control group (LF = 0.14 +/- 0.10 and HF = 0.18 +/- 0.15) (p less than 0.001). There were no significant differences for LF/HF ratio, or normalized LF (LF%) or normalized HF (HF%) between groups. CONCLUSIONS: The present results indicates higher power of both spectral bands (LF and HF) and higher amplitude of the respective peaks in athletes when compared with healthy sedentary, with a clear predominance of the HF band in the total spectral power density, which suggest that the higher heart rate variability observed in athletes reveals the predominance of parasympathetic activity, without reduction of the sympathetic tone.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1990

Acute effects of muscle fatigue and recovery on force production and relaxation in endurance, power and strength athletes.

Acute effects of fatigue produced by a maintained 60% isometric loading on force production and relaxation characteristics of the leg extensor muscles were studied in male endurance (n = 9), power (n = 6) and strength athletes (n = 9). The initial non-fatigued isometric force-time curves differed considerably (p less than 0.05-0.001) between the groups so that the times of force production were the shortest and correspondingly the maximal rate of force production the greatest in the power athletes but the longest and the smallest in the endurance athletes. The endurance time of 70.7 +/- 32.9 s at the 60% fatiguing loading was in the endurance athletes longer (p less than 0.01) than in the power (30.6 +/- 7.1 s) and strength groups (31.7 +/- 5.5 s). The present fatiguing loading resulted in all athlete groups in significant (p less than 0.05-0.001) worsening in maximal force, in the times of force production and in the maximal rates of force production and relaxation. However, this worsening in the endurance athletes in maximal force (to 92.9 +/- 7.1%) as well as in the maximal rates of force production (to 79.2 +/- 20.8%) and relaxation (to 73.1 +/- 29.2%) were significantly (p less than 0.05-0.01) smaller than the corresponding decreases in the power athletes (to 64.3 +/- 8.0%, 74.8 +/- 7.4% and to 40.9 +/- 12%, respectively) and in the strength athletes (to 65.7 +/- 7.0%, 56.7 +/- 16.0% and to 34.8 +/- 6.7%, respectively).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Biomechanical Phenomena↗
PubMed1990

The effects of actinidia sinensis planch (kiwi) drink supplementation on athletes training in hot environments.

On the basis of studying the problems and experimental data of athletes training in hot environments, we designed an athletic drink choosing actinidia sinensis planch (ASP), also known as kiwi fruit, as the basic component, and assessed its effects in athletes both at site of training and in the laboratory. The main results were as follows: (1) In athletes riding on a Monark ergometer (maintaining HR at 150 beat/min), the work time to exhaustion was longer (149 +/- 3 min vs 120 +/- 1 min), and the work load was larger (947 +/- 36 KJ vs 833 +/- 28 KJ) when supplementing the ASP drik than when they drank the placebo, P less than 0.01) (2) Supplements with the ASP drink expanded the blood volume of athletes. Hematocrit increased significantly after exercise in athletes consuming placebo, but no significant changes were found in those consuming the ASP drink. (3) The ASP drink which contained 5% carbohydrate maintained the blood glucose concentration of athletes at a normal level even when training lasted more than 2.5 hours and without noticeable effect on plasma insulin levels. (4) Supplement of small amount of multi-minerals in the ASP drink helped to decrease the mineral level changes in serum and sweat after intensive training, but it did not cause kaliemia or affect urinary output. (5) Data on urinary vitamin C content indicated that the vitamin C status of athletes supplementing the ASP drink improved. The ASP drink is not only effective but also fragrant, tasty, refreshing and thirst quenching, and it appears to have no side effects.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1985

[Free and conjugated plasma catecholamines, lactate behavior and oxygen uptake at rest and in staged physical exertion as well as alpha receptor density in intact thrombocytes in trained athletes].

The influence of chronic static training on free and conjugated plasma catecholamines was investigated in 8 statically trained athletes (21 +/- 2 years of age) at rest and during incremental ergometric cycling. Plasma catecholamines are seen as biochemical indicators of the over-all sympathetic activity. Alpha-2-adrenoreceptors were additionally determined as one parameter of the organism's sensitivity to catecholamines. During modest and heavy exercise, free plasma noradrenaline and adrenaline are comparably low in statically and endurance trained athletes. They are lower than in untrained subjects. During exhaustion, however, free adrenaline responses of the statically trained athletes only amount to 30-50% of the concentrations observed in endurance trained athletes and untrained subjects. Free plasma dopamine and conjugated plasma catecholamines do not show any significant changes during ergometric exercise. Free and conjugated catecholamines correlate positively. Positive correlations are also observed between blood pressure and plasma catecholamines. These correlations however are clearer between conjugated catecholamines and blood pressure. This is also recognizable for the negative correlation between alpha-2-receptor density on intact platelets (1078 +/- 323 binding sites per cell) and conjugated catecholamines. In conclusion, statically trained athletes also show an alteration of sympathetic tone (catecholamines) comparable to that observed in endurance trained athletes. Maximal adrenaline responses however are lower in statically trained athletes than in endurance trained or untrained subjects. The alpha-adrenoreceptor density on intact thrombocytes seems to be increased in statically trained athletes.

Adult↗
PubMed1985

The use and abuse of anabolic steroids in Olympic-caliber athletes.

Self-medication with anabolic steroids by athletes, particularly in the sports of weight lifting and track and field, has become increasingly popular. In the 1983 Pan American Games, 15 athletes were disqualified for taking anabolic steroids. Athletes take steroids believing the steroids will allow increased periods of intensive training and will increase muscle strength with proper weight training. The athletes assume this increased strength and training will translate into better athletic performance. Most athletes taking anabolic steroids are taking very large doses with no thought as to the potential adverse side effects. They ignore the possibility of long-term problems relating to hypertension, liver dysfunction, and atherosclerosis for what they see as the immediate performance benefits. In an attempt to keep sports competition "clean" and to help protect athletes from harmful drugs, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and the United States Olympic Committee have rules stating that the use of anabolic steroids is illegal. Drug testing is performed in Olympic and in many international competitions. Those people found using anabolic steroids are disqualified. This use of anabolic steroids indicates that for some athletes the need to win or to maximize performance supersedes any worries about future health.

Anabolic Agents↗
PubMed1995

Sudden cardiac death and the 'athlete's heart'.

OBJECTIVES: To review the current literature pertaining to the cardiovascular adaptations to exercise and the impact on the physical examination, the electrocardiogram, and the echocardiogram, and to distinguish those physiologic changes from pathologic conditions associated with sudden cardiac death in athletes. DATA SYNTHESIS: Specific cardiovascular adaptations occur in response to regular physical exercise. The extent of these changes depend on the type and duration of exercise as well as the gender of the athlete. These cardiac adaptations are morphologically different from those conditions associated with sudden cardiac death. In the athlete younger than 35 years, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is the most common cardiac condition associated with sudden death. Right ventricular dysplasia, idiopathic left ventricular hypertrophy, coronary anomalies, premature atherosclerosis, and Marfan syndrome compose the majority of the remaining causes of sudden cardiac death in athletes. In the athlete older than 35 years, coronary atherosclerosis is the leading cause of sudden death followed by those conditions responsible for sudden death in the younger athlete. Despite this, regular exercise before or following a myocardial infarction provides a protective effect with respect to overall mortality, cardiovascular mortality, and fatal reinfarction rates. CONCLUSIONS: Cardiovascular adaptation to regular physical exercise leads to morphologic changes in the myocardium that influence the cardiac examination, the electrocardiogram, and the echocardiogram. Knowledge and recognition of those changes can allow the clinician to distinguish normal physiologic changes from cardiac abnormality. Proper detection of athletes at high risk for sudden cardiac death and abstention from vigorous physical activity in these athletes may prevent sudden death.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed1994

Vitamin/mineral supplement use among high school athletes.

Vitamin/mineral supplements are consumed by adolescent athletes motivated both by general health concerns and a desire for improved athletic performance. Supplement use by high school athletes was examined using a questionnaire administered to 742 athletes at all nine schools in one rural county. A total of 38% used supplements, with supplement use not differing by gender or grade in school. Athletes with aspirations to participate in college sports more often consumed supplements. Healthy growth, treating illness, and sports performance were the most important reasons for supplement use, with parents, doctors, and coaches being the greatest influences on use. Most athletes (62%), especially boys, believed supplement consumption improved athletic performance. Supplement use by these adolescents appears to be motivated more by health reasons than sports performance. It is suggested that it may be useful to assess vitamin/mineral supplement use by adolescents and to provide education and counseling about diet, nutrition, and exercise for those who use them as ergogenic aids to improve athletic performance.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1996

Bone density at multiple skeletal sites in amenorrheic athletes.

OBJECTIVE: To determine if there is a generalized loss of bone mass at multiple skeletal sites in amenorrheic athletes compared with a group of eumenorrheic athletes. DESIGN: A case-control study examining the differences in bone mineral density (BMD) between amenorrheic and eumenorrheic athletes. SETTING: Seattle, Wash, and surrounding communities. PARTICIPANTS: Forty-nine athletes, aged 17 to 39 years, were selected from those responding to advertisements in local sporting-goods stores and a track-and-field newsletter. Athletes were defined as amenorrheic if they had had fewer than 2 menstrual cycles in the last 12 months or none in the past 6 months, or eumenorrheic if they had had 10 to 13 cycles in the previous year. Only women who met these criteria, confirmed by tests for estradiol and progesterone levels, were enrolled in the study. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Bone mineral density measured by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry. RESULTS: Amenorrheic athletes had significantly lower BMD (P < .01) at the lumbar spine, femoral neck, trochanter, Ward triangle, intertrochanteric region, femoral shaft, and tibia. No difference was noted at the fibula. Body weight combined with months of amenorrhea and age of menarche predicted the BMD of the lumbar spine for amenorrheic athletes. Duration of amenorrhea and body weight of amenorrheic athletes predicted BMD at the femoral neck, trochanter, intertrochanteric region, and tibia. Weight alone predicted BMD at the femoral shaft and tibia. Age plus weight predicted lumbar BMD of eumenorrheic women. CONCLUSION: Extended periods of amenorrhea may result in low bone density at multiple skeletal sites including those subjected to impact loading during exercise.

Absorptiometry, Photon↗
PubMed1996

[Sport-anemia: studies on hematological status in high school boy athletes].

High prevalence of anemia and iron deficiency state are found among athletes. To determine the influence of sports activities on the hematological state, we have performed hematological tests and examined the iron metabolism, in addition to some serum enzyme activities and some characters of red blood cells before and after exercise in high school boy athletes. The red blood cell count, hemoglobin level, and hematocrit value were significantly lower than those in the non-athletes boy students. The serum ferritin level in the athletes was significantly lower than that in the control group and healthy adults. Iron deficiency anemia was found in 12% of the athletes. The serum haptoglobin level in the athletes was significantly lower than that in the control group and the level before exercise, suggesting intravascular hemolysis, but the serum hemopexin level showed no difference before and after exercise, suggesting that the hemolysis was not so severe. The serum CPK and myoglobin levels showed a significant increase after exercise, but those levels were quite lower than that of muscle diseases. These findings suggest that daily exercise is closely associated with the increased risk of iron deficiency state, particularly in the high school boy athletes. The mechanism of hemolysis in athletes may partly depend on the increased fragility of iron deficiency red blood cells on mechanical strength.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1998

The psychotherapist and the adolescent athlete.

Athletic participation is often the focus for the expression of affect in adolescence. Emotions derive from the athletic arena itself, as well as from personal and family life. To help the athlete gain insight and mastery over his or her emotional life, the therapist must understand the role, if any, of the family in the cause of athletic complaints. Appropriate psychologic therapies include individual therapy, family therapy, and a mixture thereof, and they may be oriented toward performance issues, personal issues, or both. In the therapy, it will be helpful to reinforce the opportunity for a psychological "moratorium," a delay on excessive demands of social adaptation. In this way, the adolescent athlete has the opportunity to consider and try alternative solutions to the problem of establishing a satisfactory identity. This process will be facilitated by the therapist's insight into his or her own competitive issues, and efforts to modulate investment in the patient's achieving athletic success. Although athletes as a group are sometimes thought of as unlikely candidates for psychotherapy, adolescent athletes, in particular, often become intensively involved in their therapy for brief periods of time, with good success.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1998

A 12-month prospective study of the relationship between stress fractures and bone turnover in athletes.

Bone remodeling may be involved in the pathogenesis of stress fractures in athletes. We conducted a 12-month prospective study to evaluate bone turnover in 46 female and 49 male track and field athletes aged 17-26 years (mean age 20.3; SD 2.0) 20 of whom developed a stress fracture. Baseline levels of bone turnover were evaluated in all athletes and monthly bone turnover levels were evaluated in a subset consisting of the 20 athletes who sustained a stress fracture and a matched comparison group who did not sustain a stress fracture. Bone formation was assessed using serum osteocalcin (OC) measured by human immunoradiometric assay and bone resorption by urinary excretion of pyridinium cross-links (Pyr and D-Pyr); high performance liquid chromatography and N-telopeptides of type 1 collagen (NTx) using ELISA assay. Athletes who developed stress fractures had similar baseline levels of bone turnover compared with their nonstress fracture counterparts (P > 0.10). Results of serial measurements showed no differences in average levels of Pyr, D-Pyr, or OC in those who developed stress fractures (P = 0.10) compared with the control group. In the athletes with stress fractures, there was also no difference in bone turnover levels prior to or following the onset of bony pain. Our results show that single and multiple measurements of bone turnover are not clinically useful in predicting the likelihood of stress fractures in athletes. Furthermore, there were no consistent temporal changes in bone turnover associated with stress fracture development. However, our results do not negate the possible pathogenetic role of local changes in bone remodeling at stress fracture sites, given the high biological variability of bone turnover markers and the fact that levels of bone turnover reflect the integration of all bone remodeling throughout the skeleton.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Stress fractures in athletes: review of 196 cases.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the association of stress fractures with age, sex, sport level, sporting activity, and skeletal site in athletes seen at our sports medicine clinic between September 1991 and May 2001. During these 10 years, 10 726 patients (6415 males, 3861 females) visited our clinic because of sport-related injuries, and 196 patients [125 males (1.9%), 71 females (1.8%)] sustained stress fractures. The average age of the patients with stress fractures was 20.1 years (range 10-46 years); 84 patients (42.6%) were 15-19 years of age, and 68 (34.7%) were 20-24 years of age. Altogether, 74 patients (37.8%) were active at the high recreational level and 122 (62.2%) at the competitive level. The sites of the stress fractures varied from sport to sport. The ulnar olecranon was the most common stress fracture site among baseball athletes and the rib among the rowing athletes. Classical ballet, aerobics, tennis, and volleyball athletes predominantly sustained stress fractures of the tibial shaft. Basketball athletes predominantly sustained stress fractures of the tibial shaft and medial malleolus and the metatarsal bone, whereas track and field and soccer athletes predominantly sustained stress fractures of the tibial shaft and pubic bone. Our results show that stress fractures are seen even in high-level adolescent athletes, with similar proportions for males and females, and that particular sports are associated with specific sites for stress fractures.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

[Measurement of shoulder disability in the athlete: a systematic review].

OBJECTIVES: To identify all available shoulder disability questionnaires and to examine those that could be used for athlete. METHODS: We systematically reviewed the literature in Medline using the keywords shoulder, function, scale, index, score, questionnaire, disability, quality of life, assessment, and evaluation. We searched for scales used for athletes with the keywords scale name AND (sport OR athlete). Data were completed by using the "Guide des Outils de Mesure et d'Evaluation en Médecine Physique et de Réadaptation" textbook. Analysis took into account the clinimetric quality of the instruments and the number of items specifically related to sports. RESULTS: A total of 37 instruments have been developed to measure disease-, shoulder-specific or upper extremity specific outcome. Older instruments were developed before the advent of modern measurement methods. They usually combined objective and subjective measures. Recent instruments were designed with use of more advanced methods. Most are self-administered questionnaires. Fourteen scales included items assessing sport activity. Four of these scales have been used to assess shoulder disability in athlete. Six scales have been used to assess such disability but do not have specific items related to sports. CONCLUSION: There is no gold standard for assessing shoulder outcome in the general population and no validated outcome instruments specifically for athletes. We suggest the use of ASES, WOSI and WORC scales for evaluating shoulder function in the recreational athletes. The DASH scale should be evaluated in this population. The principal criterion in evaluating shoulder function in the high level athlete is a return to the same level of sport performance. Further studies are required to identify measurement tools for shoulder disability that have a high predictive value for return to sport.

Athletic Injuries↗
PubMed2004

Functional abnormalities in symptomatic concussed athletes: an fMRI study.

Our aim was to quantify with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) changes in brain activity in concussed athletes and compare the results with those of normal control subjects. Regional brain activations associated with a working memory task were obtained from a group of concussed athletes (15 symptomatic, 1 asymptomatic) and eight matched control subjects, using blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) fMRI. The average percent signal change from baseline to working memory condition in each region of interest was computed. Symptomatic concussed athletes demonstrated task-related activations in some but not all the regions of interest, even when they performed as well as the control subjects. Furthermore, several concussed athletes had additional increases in activity outside the regions of interest, not seen in the control group. Quantitative analysis of BOLD signals within regions of interest revealed that, in general, concussed athletes had different BOLD responses compared to the control subjects. The task-related activation pattern of the one symptom-free athlete was comparable to that of the control group. We also repeated the study in one athlete whose symptoms had resolved. On the first study, when he was still symptomatic, less task-related activations were observed. On follow-up, once his symptoms had disappeared, the task-related activations became comparable to those of the control group. These results demonstrate the potential of fMRI, in conjunction with the working memory task, to identify an underlying pathology in symptomatic concussed individuals with normal structural imaging results.

Adult↗