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PubMed1994

A model of the role of adaptation and disadaptation in olfactory receptor neurons: implications for the coding of temporal and intensity patterns in odor signals.

Natural odors occur as turbulent plumes resulting in spatially and temporally variable odor signals at the chemoreceptor cells. Concentrations can fluctuate widely within discrete packets of odor and individual packets are very intermittent and unpredictable. Chemoreceptor cells display the temporally dynamic properties of adaptation and disadaptation, which serve to alter their responses to these fluctuating odor patterns. A computational model, modified from one previously published, was used to investigate the effect of adaptation and recovery of adaptation (disadaptation) on the spike output of model olfactory receptor cells under natural stimulus conditions. The response characteristics of model cells were based upon empirically determined dose-response, adaptation, disadaptation and flicker fusion properties of peripheral olfactory cells. The physiological properties of the model cell (adaptation and disadaptation rate and the dose-response relationship) could be modified independently, allowing assessment of the role of each in shaping the responses of the model cell. Complete adaptation and disadaptation time courses ranged from 500 ms (rapid cells) to 10 s (slow cells). The stimuli for the model cells were quantified odor plume recordings obtained under a variety of biologically relevant flow conditions. As expected, the rapidly adapting model cells displayed different response characteristics than the slowly adapting model cells to identical temporal odor profiles. Responses of the model cells depended upon their adaptation and disadaptation rates, and the frequency characteristics of the odor presentation. These results indicate that adaptation and disadaptation determine the range of concentration fluctuations over which a particular cell will respond. Thus, these properties function as an olfactory equivalent of a band-pass filter in electronics. This type of filtering has implications for the extraction of information from odor signals, such as the coding of temporal and intensity features.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed1995

Cross-adaptation of sweaty-smelling 3-methyl-2-hexenoic acid by a structurally-similar, pleasant-smelling odorant.

Cross-adaptation has been interpreted as a measure of the degree to which odors share common sensory channels. How structural similarity, in the absence of perceptual similarity, influences cross-adaptation is unknown. The present study assessed cross-adaptation by structurally similar, but perceptually different, odorants. Magnitude estimates for a 10:1 mixture of (E)- and (Z)-3-methyl-2-hexenoic acid (3M2H), a principal component of human underarm odor, decreased following adaptation to a mixture of (E)- and (Z)-ethyl esters of 3M2H (EE3M2H), which possess a pleasant, fruity odor. Cross-adaptation was asymmetric; adaptation to 3M2H did not significantly affect the perceived intensity of EE3M2H. By contrast, there was no significant cross-adaptation between 3M2H and the fruity-smelling ethyl esters of its homologues, 3-methyl-2-octenoic acid (EE3M20) and 3-methyl-2-pentenoic acid (EE3M2P). Similarity ratings revealed no differences among the three ethyl esters in their perceptual similarity to 3M2H (i.e. all were rated equally dissimilar to 3M2H). Molecular modeling studies revealed no difference in the charge distribution of these molecules. Rather, differences in the shape and size of the hydrophobic part of the molecule may determine the extent of cross-adaptation. These results demonstrate that structurally-similar, yet perceptually-distinct, odorants may cross-adapt and suggest that the extent of cross-adaptation may be affected by the degree of structural, as well as perceptual, similarity.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed2003

Evolutionary convergence in adaptation of proteins to temperature: A4-lactate dehydrogenases of Pacific damselfishes (Chromis spp.).

We have compared the kinetic properties (Michaelis-Menten constant [K(m)] and catalytic rate constant [k(cat)]) and amino acid sequences of orthologs of lactate dehydrogenase-A (A(4)-LDH) from congeners of Pacific damselfishes (genus Chromis) native to cold-temperate and tropical habitats to elucidate mechanisms of enzymatic adaptation to temperature. Specifically, we determined whether the sites of adaptive variation and the types of amino acids involved in substitutions at these sites were similar in the Chromis orthologs and other orthologs of warm-adapted and cold-adapted A(4)-LDH previously studied. We report striking evolutionary convergence in temperature adaptation of this protein and present further support for the hypothesis that enzyme adaptation to temperature involves subtle amino acid changes at a few sites that affect the mobility of the portions of the enzyme that are involved in rate-determining catalytic conformational changes. We tested the predicted effects of differences in sequence using site-directed mutagenesis. A single amino acid substitution in a key hinge region of the A(4)-LDH molecule is sufficient to change the kinetic characteristics of a temperate A(4)-LDH to that of a tropical ortholog. This substitution is at the same location that was identified in previous studies of adaptive variation in A(4)-LDH and was hypothesized to be important in adjusting K(m) and k(cat). Our results suggest that certain sites within an enzyme, notably those that establish the energy changes associated with rate-limiting movements of protein structure during catalysis, are "hot spots" of adaptation and that common types of amino acid substitutions occur at these sites to adapt structural "flexibility" and kinetic properties. Thus, despite the wide array of options that proteins have to adjust their structural stabilities in the face of thermal stress, the adaptive changes that couple "flexibility" to alterations of function may be limited in their diversity.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed1999

Chronic pain in the elderly: occupational adaptation as a means of coping with osteoarthritis of the hip and/or knee.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether elderly individuals with chronic pain as a result of osteoarthritis of the hip and/or knee would report adaptations to their activities, or occupational adaptations, as a coping response to pain and, if so, to describe these adaptations and their relation to chronic pain, functional difficulty, depression, social support, and life satisfaction. DESIGN: Thirty elderly individuals completed rating scales and a structured questionnaire designed to measure occupational adaptation and the importance of activity. SETTING: Participants were community-dwelling elderly individuals and were interviewed in their homes or in a research office setting. PATIENTS: Consecutive orthopedic surgeon, family physician, or Arthritis Society patients, whose names were provided with the patient's consent, to the researcher. RESULTS: Individuals reported two approaches to occupational adaptation: they changed how they performed personal activities of daily living that they rated as most important and they stopped performing a number of avocational activities that they rated as less important. Statistically significant correlations were found among occupational adaptation, pain, depression, and difficulty with functioning. These variables were inversely related to life satisfaction. CONCLUSIONS: This sample of elderly individuals with chronic pain described occupational adaptations, or adaptations to "doing," as a means of coping with their chronic pain. There appeared to be a relation among pain, functional difficulty, depression, social support, and occupational adaptation. Additional research to increase the understanding of occupational adaptation as a means of coping with chronic pain is warranted.

Activities of Daily Living↗
PubMed2001

Influence of atenolol on the kinetics of RT interval rate adaptation in conscious dogs.

The objective was to test an effect of atenolol independent of heart rate on electrocardiographic RT rate adaptation by investigating RT adaptation during spontaneous rate and after an abrupt change of atrial rate (study of RT delay). Digital electrocardiograms were recorded from eight conscious dogs. Analysis of RT interval (measured from QRS apex to end of T) was performed on a beat-to-beat basis. The protocol was repeated in the control state and after atenolol administration (2 mg/kg). Regarding spontaneous heart rate, an increased or decreased RR duration did not modify the beat-to-beat relative adaptation of RT to a change of RR (2.15 +/- 1% during control). Atenolol increased mean RR (p < 0.001) and decreased relative adaptation of RT (0.22 +/- 0.18%, p < 0.001). The inverse correlation between mean RR and the relative RT adaptation (r = -0.76, p < 0.05) disappeared after atenolol administration. Regarding RT delay, complete adaptation of RT required 3 min; 48 +/- 16% of this adaptation was observed after the first beat and 60 +/- 11% was observed after the 20th. Atenolol attenuated this adaptation during the first six beats following the abrupt cycle length change (p < 0.05). We concluded that the attenuation of RT rate adaptation after atenolol is related to heart rate modulation and to the time delay in RT rate adaptation.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed1995

A new method for quantification of the dynamics of dark adaptation.

A new method of quantifying the dynamics of the human dark adaptation function is presented. This method is based on nonlinear regression analysis and allows the derivation of a number of clinically useful indices of dark adaptation ability. The analysis method is applied to literature data describing the effect of ageing on dark adaptation and to clinical data from a retinitis pigmentosa patient. Ageing was seen to decrease the rate of adaptation in the cone portion of the dark adaptation function, and to have little effect on the rate of adaptation in the rod portion of the dark adaptation function. One case of retinitis pigmentosa was associated with increased rod and cone thresholds but little change in the rate of adaptation of the cone portion of the dark adaptation function. It is suggested that this analysis method may offer advantages in quantifying changes in dark adaptation dynamics.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Insights into the mechanisms of gastric adaptation to aspirin-induced injury: a role for regenerating protein but not trefoil peptides.

The phenomenon of reduced gastric mucosal injury despite repeated doses of a damaging agent is termed adaptation. Adaptation to nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug-induced injury has been clearly demonstrated in both humans and experimental animals; however, the precise mechanisms remain unclear. We hypothesized that mediators of adaptation might be the regenerating protein (RegI) and the trefoil peptides TFF1 and TFF2, because these proteins play pivotal roles in gastric mucosal protection and repair. The gene expression and the protein levels of these proteins were measured and compared in normal, aspirin-injured, and aspirin-adapted rat stomachs. TFF gene and protein expression levels were similar in all three groups, whereas RegI gene expression and protein levels in adapted stomach were increased. A time course analysis of RegI expression during the onset and offset of adaptation showed that mucosal RegI increased during the development of adaptation, was maintained during subsequent aspirin dosing, and returned to baseline levels once dosing had ceased and adaptation was lost-indicative of a causal role in the adaptation process. Colocalization of increased RegI with gastric epithelial areas showing increased proliferation also suggests that RegI may be an important mediator of the resolution of mucosal injury that is characteristic of gastric adaptation to aspirin.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed1997

Adaptation to contingencies in macaque primary visual cortex.

We tested the hypothesis that neurons in the primary visual cortex (V1) adapt selectively to contingencies in the attributes of visual stimuli. We recorded from single neurons in macaque V1 and measured the effects of adaptation either to the sum of two gratings (compound stimulus) or to the individual gratings. According to our hypothesis, there would be a component of adaptation that is specific to the compound stimulus. In a first series of experiments, the two gratings differed in orientation. One grating had optimal orientation and the other was orthogonal to it, and therefore did not activate the neuron under study. These experiments provided evidence in favour of our hypothesis. In most cells adaptation to the compound stimulus reduced responses to the compound stimulus more than it reduced responses to the optimal grating, and the responses to the compound stimulus were reduced more by adaptation to the compound stimulus than by adaptation to the individual gratings. This suggests that a component of adaptation was specific to (and caused by) the simultaneous presence of the two orientations in the compound stimulus. To test whether V1 neurons could adapt to other contingencies in the stimulus attributes, we performed a second series of experiments, in which the component gratings were parallel but differed in spatial frequency, and were both effective in activating the neuron under study. These experiments failed to reveal convincing contingent effects of adaptation, suggesting that neurons cannot adapt equally well to all types of contingency.

Adaptation, Ocular↗
PubMed1994

Adaptation of a strain of Spirulina platensis to grow in cobalt- and iodine-enriched media.

Cobalt- and iodide-enriched (adapted, tolerant) strains of the protein-rich cyanobacterium, Spirulina platensis, were produced by repeated sub-culturing in increasing concentrations of the two trace elements. The strains enriched with cobalt and iodide showed higher uptake of these elements than the controls. The LD50 values for the parent and cobalt-adapted strains were 95 and 231 mumol l-1 CO2+, respectively. Likewise, the LD50 values for parent and iodide-adapted strains were 12 and 42 mmol l-1 I-. The carotenoid:chlorophyll a ratio of the parent strains increased after cobalt addition. The cobalt-adapted strain showed a much higher ratio than the cobalt-grown parent (sensitive) cells which remained unchanged after cobalt addition. Intracellular CO2+ uptake by the cells was concentration-dependent and followed Michaelis-Menten kinetics with saturation in uptake occurring in the parent and adapted strains at 126 and 189 mumol l-1 Co2+, respectively. At saturating concentrations, the maximum CO2+ uptake was 39.73 and 158.43 nmol CO2+ mg-1 protein, respectively for the parent and adapted strains. The adapted strain also showed greater cobalt adsorption. The Km of intracellular CO2+ uptake was lower in the case of adapted cells as compared with the parent, whereas Vmax showed an opposite trend. Thus, the adapted cells appear to be more efficient than the parent strain in intracellular uptake of cobalt. Differences between kinetic constants of both the strains suggest that the strains may be physiologically different. Likewise, iodide uptake was significantly higher in iodide-adapted cells than in controls.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed2006

The transition to school: adaptation in young children with and without intellectual disability.

BACKGROUND: Previous research has highlighted the importance of the transition to school for young children and their families. A child's successful adaptation to school is likely influenced by a number of factors, including academic, social, emotional, behavioural and cognitive competencies. Children with intellectual disability (ID) may be at heightened risk for early school difficulties, in part due to their deficits in cognitive and adaptive behaviours. METHODS: Factors associated with the adaptive transition to school in young children with (n = 24) and without (n = 43) ID were examined. Adaptive transitions were defined as having few teacher-reported problem behaviours and positive student-teacher relationships. Child self-regulatory skills and both parent- and teacher-reported social skills were evaluated to determine if they predicted positive adaptation in school for 5- to 6-year-old children. Data were gathered from child assessments, parent reports on standardized measures, direct observations of delay of gratification tasks and teacher reports on standardized measures. RESULTS: Children with ID had significantly more teacher-reported problem behaviour, poorer overall student-teacher relationships, fewer parent- and teacher-reported social skills and fewer self-regulation skills than typically developing children. Self-regulation at child age 36 months (latency to touch a desired toy) was significantly related to adaptation to school, as were parent and teacher reports of social skills. Social skills significantly predicted adaptation to school, even after accounting for the effects of child IQ and adaptive behaviour. CONCLUSIONS: Children with ID had less positive early school experiences, as indicated by multiple indices of adaptation to school. Fostering early social skills may be an important target for increasing the positive adaptation to school for young children, especially those with ID.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed2004

Transfer of adaptation from visually guided saccades to averaging saccades elicited by double visual targets.

The adaptive mechanisms that control the amplitude of visually guided saccades (VGS) are only partially elucidated. In this study, we investigated, in six human subjects, the transfer of VGS adaptation to averaging saccades elicited by the simultaneous presentation of two visual targets. The generation of averaging saccades requires the transformation of two representations encoding the desired eye displacement toward each of the two targets into a single representation encoding the averaging saccade (averaging programming site). We aimed to evaluate whether VGS adaptation acts upstream (hypothesis 1) or at/below (hypothesis 2) the level of averaging saccades programming. Using the double-step target paradigm, we simultaneously induced a backward adaptation of 17.5 degrees horizontal VGS and a forward adaptation of 17.5 degrees oblique VGS performed along the +/- 40 degrees directions relative to the azimuth. We measured the effects of this dual adaptation protocol on averaging saccades triggered by two simultaneous targets located at 17.5 degrees along the +/- 40 degrees directions. To increase the yield of averaging saccades, we instructed the subjects to move their eyes as fast as possible to an intermediate position between the two targets. We found that the amplitude of averaging saccades was smaller after VGS adaptation than before and differed significantly from that predicted by hypothesis 1, but not by hypothesis 2, with an adaptation transfer of 50%. These findings indicate that VGS adaptation largely occurs at/below the averaging saccade programming site. Based on current knowledge of the neural substrate of averaging saccades, we suggest that VGS adaptation mainly acts at the level of the superior colliculus or downstream.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed1977

Impulse dependent adaptation in Helix pomatia neurones: effect of the impulse on the firing pattern.

In neurones of the ventral ganglion of Helix pomatia an adaptation type is demonstrated where the impulses contribute to the adaptation, as if a slowly changing outward current were associated to every impulse. The current appears to be accumulated from impulse to impulse and the accumulated current to decrease towards zero in the interval between the impulses. This type of adaptation is called impulse dependent. A method to distinguish between impulse dependent adaptation and impulse independent adaptation is described. Typical adaptation curves for the impulse dependent adaptation are shown. With a strong adaptation there is a linear relation between the steady state frequency and the applied stimulus. When stimuli of short duration are applied repetitively, neurones with impulse dependent adaptation respond with spikes on an increasing fraction of the stimuli as the stimulus strength is increased. A simplified model of the adaptation is proposed, and the firing pattern of the cells is compared with that of the model. In this way numerical values of the model parameters have been estimated.

Action Potentials↗
PubMed1989

Subliminal light control of dark adaptation kinetics in Phycomyces phototropism.

The dark adaptation kinetics of Phycomyces phototropism depend critically on the experimental protocol. When sporangiophores that had been light-adapted to a fluence rate of 1 W m-2 at 447 nm were exposed to dim unilateral light, the adaptation kinetics showed exponential decay (6 min time constant). However, when light-adapted sporangiophores were kept for variable intervals in darkness (i.e. in presence of traditional red safelight) and then exposed to dim unilateral test light, the decay kinetics of adaptation were biexponential with a rapid decay during the first minute (1 min time constant), followed by a slow recovery (11 min time constant). Thus, the dim subliminal light given after the sporangiophores had been adapted to 1 W m-2, was actually perceived, and exerted control over the dark-adaptation process. The observed acceleration of dark-adaptation kinetics constitutes a novel light effect of the sporangiophore. At wavelength 383 nm this effect was not observed. Because a beta-carotene lacking mutant, L91 (genotype carB), was unmodified in dark-adaptation kinetics measured in the presence or absence of subliminal light, it appears that beta-carotene is not involved in the photocontrol of adaptation.

Dark Adaptation↗
PubMed1966

The separation of cone mechanisms in dark adaptation.

1. In dark adaptation the threshold is raised as though the bleaching of visual pigment generated an equivalent background. Now Stiles has shown that real coloured backgrounds act selectively upon the various colour mechanisms, so we ask: ;Do equivalent backgrounds from coloured bleachings also act selectively?'2. When dark adaptation was plotted using a blue test flash (Fig. 1b) following bleaching by orange light a kinked curve was obtained. The upper branch was shown to have the same dark adapted threshold as Stiles blue (pi(1)) mechanism and the lower branch as his green (pi(4)) mechanism. The pi(4) dark adaptation curve alone (unkinked) was obtained using a white instead of an orange bleach.3. Dark adaptation curves were obtained in which the test flash was presented upon various steady backgrounds. In conditions where only pi(4) was involved (Fig. 3) the experimental results fitted the curves calculated on the assumption that the equivalent background of bleaching simply adds to the real background in raising the threshold-a condition already established for rods.4. In conditions where pi(4) and pi(1) were both present (blue test, yellow-green background and white bleach) kinked dark adaptation curves were obtained (Fig. 2) where the upper branch (pi(4)) coincided with those of Fig. 3 and the lower were due to pi(1).5. The blue mechanism recovers in dark adaptation at about the same rate as red and green, or slightly slower.6. Dark adaptation curves with red (pi(5)) and green (pi(4)) limbs can be obtained after a deep red bleach (Fig. 4) using a red test flash and a green background. The red and the green limbs were also plotted alone in their entirety by slightly changing the conditions.7. We are led to the idea of three colour mechanisms that adapt as independently one of another after bleaching as they do with backgrounds.8. Though this simple independence accounts for the wide and conspicuous range of adaptive phenomena, we have encountered some special conditions (not here described) that seem to imply a measure of interaction between the different colour mechanisms.

Adaptation, Ocular↗
PubMed1969

Membrane properties of the stretch receptor neurones of crayfish with particular reference to mechanisms of sensory adaptation.

1. Membrane properties of neurones of the two morphologically different types of stretch receptor of crayfish, the slowly adapting (RM(1)) and the rapidly adapting (RM(2)) receptors, were investigated with two microelectrodes inserted into the same neurone.2. The action potential was usually larger in the slowly adapting than in the rapidly adapting neurone. But the distributions of the height were not sharply delimited, and there was an overlap from the two groups of neurone.3. There were no marked differences in the current-voltage relationship between the two types.4. Under voltage clamp, depolarizations evoked a large delayed outward current, which slowly diminished during maintained depolarization (K-inactivation). Under a moderate depolarization, development of the K-permeability increase was very slow.5. When stimulated by intracellularly applied constant currents, the slowly adapting neurone always adapted slowly, and gave rise to long-lasting trains of spikes, whereas the rapidly adapting neurone never produced maintained repetitive discharges.6. The same marked differences in the adaptation behaviour of spike discharge between the two types were also observed when the neurones were stimulated by constant currents applied through external electrodes.7. When the stimulating point was shifted along the axon of the slowly adapting neurones, the ability to produce long-lasting repetitive discharges was found to be confined to the axonal region near the soma, where the diameter was very small, and where impulses were first initiated.8. Possible ionic mechanisms of the adaptation of the spike generating membrane were discussed. The importance of slowly occurring changes in the Na- and K-permeabilities and changes in the electromotive force of the membrane due to electrogenic pump was emphasized.

Action Potentials↗
PubMed1971

Studies of temporal frequency adaptation in visual contrast sensitivity.

1. A short adaptation to sinusoidal flicker produces a temporary elevation in the temporal contrast threshold of a human observer.2. The frequency specificity of this adaptation effect is much less than that observed with adaptation to spatial frequencies; thus it does not seem warranted to postulate the existence of distinct channels for the detection of specific temporal frequencies, as has been done in the case of spatial frequencies (Blakemore & Campbell, 1969).3. At low frequencies, a substantial adapting modulation is necessary to produce an effect, but at high frequencies an effect can be seen even with adaptation which is below threshold (as determined by the method of adjustment).4. This subthreshold adaptation appears to explain the observation that thresholds set by the method of adjustment rise by as much as a factor of two during the first minute of exposure.5. No interocular transfer of the adaptation effect was observed.6. Adaptation first appears at mesopic luminances, but its appearance is not dependent on the change from rod to cone vision. Under several conditions, however, the first appearance of flicker adaptation did coincide with a change in the deLange curve, which is attributable to the appearance of the antagonistic surround of visual receptive fields. Thus it was hypothesized that the surround is essential for adaptation.

Adaptation, Ocular↗
PubMed1974

Is spatial adaptation an after-effect of prolonged inhibition?

1. The elevation of the thresholds for sinusoidal gratings of 4 c/deg and 6.7 c/deg was examined after adapting to gratings of 4 c/deg. Threshold elevation was determined as a function of the adapting contrast.2. It was confirmed that, when the adapting and testing spatial-frequencies were the same, the threshold elevation curve extrapolated to zero elevation at an adapting contrast equal to the pre-adaptation threshold for the adapting grating.3. It was found that the threshold elevation curve for 6.7 c/deg gratings also extrapolated to zero elevation at the pre-adaptation threshold for the adapting grating, even though the testing and adapting frequencies were different.4. It is argued that the latter result shows that adaptation is not simply an after-effect of prolonged excitation of a channel. Threshold elevation curves may represent the bandwidths of inhibitory interactions between channels.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed1980

Light adaptation within the receptive field centre of rat retinal ganglion cells.

1. Responses from axons of single retinal ganglion cells in the rat's optic tract were used to measure the pooling of adaptive signals within the cells' receptive field. Computer-aided analyses of response measurements were used to evaluate sensitivity at a number of field locations. 2. A small adapting spot caused a localized decrease in sensitivity within the receptive field centre of ON- and OFF-centre ganglion cells. 2. The functions describing response versus test luminance were similar in shape for all test and adaptation configurations. This assured that, using a fixed criterion response, sensitivity determinations could be made just as well in any receptive field location and under any of the experimental conditions. 4. A concentric surround, antagonistic to the receptive field centre, was readily apparent only under conditions of light adaptation. Experiments on the local effects of small adapting spots, conducted with selective surround adaptation, showed that the non-uniform spread of adaptation within the receptive field centre was not linked to surround intrusion. 5. The possibility that the photopic mechanism intruded to contaminate these results was considered and rejected. 6. When a suprathreshold spot was alternated between two equally sensitive positions, the ganglion cell gave an approximately balanced response. An upset of this balance was produced by placing a small adapting spot at either position, thus demonstrating, in another way, the non-uniform spread of adaptation within the receptive field centre. 7. It is concluded that significant pooling of adaptation effects occurs prior to the combination of influences which contribute to the centre response of a ganglion cell.

Action Potentials↗