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PubMed2003

Capsaicin as a probe of the relationship between bitter taste and chemesthesis.

Previous studies have indicated that capsaicin, traditionally considered to be a pure chemesthetic stimulus, can evoke a bitter taste and might also cross-desensitize the tastes of some bitter and sour tastants. The purpose of the present study was to investigate further the scope and nature of capsaicin's effects on bitter taste. In Experiment 1, subjects rated the taste and burning/stinging of QSO4 (0.32 and 1.0 mM), saccharin (1.0 and 3.2 mM), urea (3.2 and 10 M), MgCl2, (0.18 and 0.56 M), PROP (0.32 mM), and sucrose (0.32 and 1.0 M) applied to the tongue tip with cotton swabs before and after 10 applications of 300 microM capsaicin. Capsaicin initially evoked a weak bitterness in some subjects that quickly diminished over repeated exposures. Following capsaicin treatment, the bitterness of QSO4, urea, MgCl2, and PROP was reduced, as was the burning sensation produced by MgCl2 and urea. In Experiment 2, we tested 29 subjects in the circumvallate (CV) region of the tongue using the same general procedure. Capsaicin induced a weak but persistent bitterness in a subset of subjects but failed to desensitize its own bitterness or that of any other tastant. Overall, the results confirm that capsaicin can both stimulate and desensitize bitter taste, but in amounts that vary for different bitter stimuli and between the front and back of the tongue. Possible reasons for these regional and stimulus-dependent differences are discussed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Structural and sensory characterization of compounds contributing to the bitter off-taste of carrots (Daucus carota L.) and carrot puree.

Sequential application of solvent extraction, gel permeation chromatography, and HPLC in combination with taste dilution analyses revealed that not a sole compound but a multiplicity of bitter tastants contribute to the bitter off-taste of cold-stored carrots and commercial carrot puree, respectively. Among these bitter compounds, 3-methyl-6-methoxy-8-hydroxy-3,4-dihydroisocoumarin (6-methoxymellein), 5-hydroxy-7-methoxy-2-methylchromone (eugenin), 2,4,5-trimethoxybenzaldehyde (gazarin), (Z)-heptadeca-1,9-diene-4,6-diin-3,8-diol (falcarindiol), (Z)-heptadeca-1,9-diene-4,6-diin-3-ol (falcarinol), and (Z)-3-acetoxy-heptadeca-1,9-diene-4,6-diin-8-ol (falcarindiol 3-acetate) could be identified on the basis of MS as well as 1D- and 2D-NMR experiments. Due to the low concentrations of <0.1 mg/kg and the high taste thresholds found for eugenin and gazarin, these compounds could be unequivocally excluded as important contributors to the bitter taste of carrots. Calculation of bitter activity values as the ratio of their concentration to their bitter detection threshold clearly demonstrated that neither in fresh and stored carrots nor in commercial carrot puree did 6-methoxymellein contribute to the bitter off-taste. In contrast, the concentrations of falcarindiol in stored carrots and, even more pronounced, in carrot puree were found to be 9- and 13-fold above its low bitter detection concentration of 0.04 mmol/kg, thus demonstrating that this acetylenic diol significantly contributes to the bitter taste of the carrot products investigated.

Alkynes↗
PubMed2004

Mechanisms of cancer chemoprevention by hop bitter acids (beer aroma) through induction of apoptosis mediated by Fas and caspase cascades.

The bitter acids of hops (Humulus lupulus L.) mainly consist of alpha-acids, beta-acids, and their oxidation products that contribute the unique aroma of the beer beverage. Hop bitter acids displayed a strong growth inhibitory effect against human leukemia HL-60 cells, with an estimated IC(50) value of 8.67 microg/mL, but were less effective against human histolytic lymphoma U937 cells. Induction of apoptosis was confirmed in HL-60 cells by DNA fragmentation and the appearance of a sub-G1 DNA peak, which were preceded by dissipation of mitochondrial membrane potential, cytochrome c release, and subsequent induction of pro-caspase-9 and -3 processing. Cleavages of PARP and DFF-45 were accompanied with activation of caspase-9 and -3 triggered by hop bitter acids in HL-60 cells. The change in the expression of Bcl-2, Bcl-X(L), and Bax in response to hop bitter acids was studied, and the Bcl-2 protein level slightly decreased; however, the Bcl-X(L) protein level was obviously decreased, whereas the Bax protein level was dramatically increased, indicating that the control of Bcl-2 family proteins by hop bitter acids might participate in the disruption of mitochondrial integrity. In addition, the results showed that hop bitter acids promoted the up-regulation of Fas and FasL prior to the processing and activation of pro-caspase-8 and cleavage of Bid, suggesting the involvement of a Fas-mediated pathway in hop bitter acids-induced cells. Taken together, these findings suggest that a certain intimate link might exist between receptor- and mitochondria-mediated death signalings that committed to cell death induced by hop bitter acids. The induction of apoptosis by hop bitter acids may offer a pivotal mechanism for their chemopreventive action.

Acids↗
PubMed2002

Modifying the bitterness of selected oral pharmaceuticals with cation and anion series of salts.

PURPOSE: NaCl has proven to be an effective bitterness inhibitor, but the reason remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of a variety of cations and anions on the bitterness of selected oral pharmaceuticals and bitter taste stimuli: pseudoephedrine, ranitidine, acetaminophen, quinine, and urea. METHOD: Human psychophysical taste evaluation using a whole mouth exposure procedure was used. RESULTS: The cations (all associated with the acetate anion) inhibited bitterness when mixed with pharmaceutical solutions to varying degrees. The sodium cation significantly (P < 0.003) inhibited bitterness of the pharmaceuticals more than the other cations. The anions (all associated with the sodium cation) also inhibited bitterness to varying degrees. With the exception of salicylate, the glutamate and adenosine monophosphate anions significantly (P < 0.001) inhibited bitterness of the pharmaceuticals more than the other anions. Also, there were several specific inhibitory interactions between ammonium, sodium and salicylate and certain pharmaceuticals. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that sodium was the most successful cation and glutamate and AMP were the most successful anions at inhibiting bitterness. Structure forming and breaking properties of ions, as predicted by the Hofmeister series. and other physical-chemical ion properties failed to significantly predict bitterness inhibition.

Adenosine Monophosphate↗
PubMed2002

The human TAS2R16 receptor mediates bitter taste in response to beta-glucopyranosides.

Bitter taste generally causes aversion, which protects humans from ingesting toxic substances. But bitter flavors also contribute to the palatability of food and beverages, thereby influencing nutritional habits in humans. Although many studies have examined bitter taste, the underlying receptor mechanisms remain poorly understood. Anatomical, functional and genetic data from rodents suggest the existence of a family of receptors that are responsive to bitter compounds. Here we report that a human member of this family, TAS2R16, is present in taste receptor cells on the tongue and is activated by bitter beta-glucopyranosides. Responses to these phytonutrients show a similar concentration dependence and desensitization in transfected cells and in experiments assessing taste perception in humans. Bitter compounds consisting of a hydrophobic residue attached to glucose by a beta-glycosidic bond activate TAS2R16. Thus, TAS2R16 links the recognition of a specific chemical structure to the perception of bitter taste. If the ability of TAS2R16 to detect substances with common molecular properties is typical of the bitter receptor family, it may explain how a few receptors permit the perception of numerous bitter substances.

Benzyl Alcohols↗
PubMed1990

The applications and future implications of bitterness reduction and inhibition in food products.

Numerous food and beverage products, bulking agents, and pharmaceuticals have pleasant as well as unpleasant bitter-tasting components in their taste profile. In numerous cases, the bitter taste modality is an undesirable trait of the product. Bitter characteristics found in some food systems have been removed or diminished by various known processes, but no universally applicable bitter inhibitor has ever been recognized. Some indications point to a receptor-mediated phenomenon for sweetness and bitterness. Research on sweet compounds has led to knowledge of sweetness inhibitors and could ultimately lead to bitterness inhibitors. To facilitate efforts to rationally design a universal bitter inhibitor or cocktail of such, a review of the bitter taste phenomena and known methods of bitterness reduction and inhibition have been compiled.

Food Technology↗
PubMed2001

Clinical bitterness masking test for phantogeusia.

It is difficult to determine the reason why a patient complains of a bitter taste when their mouth is empty. We examined a new diagnostic test using a bitterness masking substance. The bitterness masking substance, 'Benecoat BMI-60' (hereafter BMI-60), is a masking substance specific to the taste cells' bitterness receptors. After patients gargled with BMI-60 solutions, the phantom sensation of bitterness was masked in some patients, but was not masked in others. Bitter substances in saliva seemed to be masked by BMI-60, but bitterness did not seem to be masked when the locus of the phantom sensation was within the peripheral nerve and/or the brain. The bitterness masking test is useful for diagnosis of the phantom sensation of bitter taste.

Aged↗
PubMed2003

A psychophysical investigation of binary bitter-compound interactions.

The aim of this study was to determine if taste interactions occur when bitter stimuli are mixed. Eight bitter stimuli were employed: denatonium benzoate (DB), quinine-HCl (QHCl), sucrose octaacetate (SOA), urea, L-tryptophan (L-trp), L-phenylalanine (L-phe), ranitidine-HCl, and Tetralone. The first experiment constructed individual psychophysical curves for each subject (n = 19) for each compound to account for individual differences in sensitivities when presenting bitter compounds in experiment 2. Correlation analysis revealed two groupings of bitter compounds at low intensity (1, L-trp, L-phe, and ranitidine; 2, SOA and QHCl), but the correlations within each group decreased as the perceived intensity increased. In experiment 2, intensity ratings and two-alternative forced-choice discrimination tasks showed that bitter compounds generally combine additively in mixture and do not show interactions with a few specific exceptions. The methods employed detected synergy among sweeteners, but could not detect synergy among these eight bitter compounds. In general, the perceived bitterness of these binary bitter-compound mixtures was an additive function of the total bitter-inducing stimuli in the mouth.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Evaluation of the bitterness of antibiotics using a taste sensor.

The bitterness of nine commercial antibiotics (clarithromycin, erythromycin, cefdinil, doxycycline, vancomycin, tetracycline, minocycline, oxytetracycline and bacampicillin) was evaluated in human gustatory sensation tests with nine volunteers. The bitterness of 0.1-0.3 mM solutions (or suspensions in the case of clarithromycin) of the antibiotics was then measured using an artificial multichannel taste sensor. In the sensor measurements, three variables were used to predict estimated bitterness in single and multiple regression analysis and principal component analysis: sensor output as relative value (R), the change of membrane potential caused by adsorption (C) and C/R. Particularly good correlation was obtained between obtained bitterness scores and predicted scores using C from channel 2 of the sensor (r2=0.870, P<0.005) and C/R values for channels 2 and 3 (r2=0.947, P<0.005). The taste sensor was also successful in assessing the bitterness intensity of clarithromycin powder suspensions of various concentrations. Clarithromycin has a low aqueous solubility but is the most bitter of the nine antibiotics. Sensory data from channel 3 of the sensor predicted the bitterness of clarithromycin powder suspensions and their filtered solutions well. Finally, the bitterness intensity of a commercial clarithromycin dry syrup product (Clarith dry syrup, Taisho Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd, Tokyo, Japan) was evaluated in gustatory sensation tests and using the taste sensor. In Clarith dry syrup the drug is coated with aminoalkyl methacrylate polymer using a spray congealing method. The taste sensor results confirmed that the polymer was successful in almost completely masking the bitter taste of the dry syrup product.

Anti-Bacterial Agents↗
PubMed2004

The combination effect of L-arginine and NaCl on bitterness suppression of amino acid solutions.

The purpose of the present study was to quantify the degree of suppression of the bitterness of two amino acids (L-isoleucine (L-Ile), and L-phenylalanine (L-Phe)) which could be achieved by the addition of various test chemicals, and to examine the mechanism of this bitterness suppression. The test chemicals used were two sweeteners (sucrose, aspartame), NaCl, various acidic (L-aspartic acid, L-glutamic acid), or basic (L-histidine, L-lysine and L-arginine) amino acids, tannic acid and phosphatidic acid. The combination of L-arginine (L-Arg) and NaCl together was the most effective in reducing the bitterness of 100 mM L-Ile and L-Phe solutions in human gustatory sensation tests. Even in bitterness of 0.1 mM quinine solution, L-Arg was also successful in reducing the bitterness. This bitterness-suppression effect was specific to L-Arg and not to the other basic amino acids. No comparable taste-masking effect was observed for the acidic amino acids. The artificial taste sensor failed to predict completely the bitterness-suppressing effect of L-Arg. It seems likely that the bitterness-suppressing effect of L-Arg is mediated not only by binding at the receptor site, but also elsewhere in the process of bitterness perception, such as a direct effect on the sodium channel. It is conjectured that the guanidinium group of L-Arg may interact with sodium channels in taste bud membranes.

Arginine↗
PubMed2005

Blood pressure and heart rate effects following a single dose of bitter orange.

BACKGROUND: The ingredients of numerous "ephedra-free" dietary supplements used for weight loss include bitter orange, which contains sympathomimetic alkaloids such as synephrine. Due to the similarity in chemical structure to ephedrine and the potential sympathomimetic effects of synephrine, it is hypothesized that bitter orange may increase blood pressure (BP) and heart rate (HR). OBJECTIVE: To determine the effects on BP and HR after a single dose of bitter orange in healthy adults. METHODS: In a prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study, 15 young, healthy, adult subjects received either a single dose of Nature's Way Bitter Orange--a 900 mg dietary supplement extract standardized to 6% synephrine--or matching placebo, with a one week washout period. Systolic BP (SBP), diastolic BP (DBP), and HR were measured at baseline and every hour for 6 hours after administration. RESULTS: SBP after bitter orange was significantly increased versus placebo at hours 1-5 (p < 0.0001); the peak difference was 7.3 +/- 4.6 mm Hg. Although the baseline DBP was higher than after administration of both placebo and bitter orange, DBP after bitter orange was significantly increased versus placebo at hours 4 and 5 (p < or = 0.02); the peak difference was 2.6 +/- 3.8 mm Hg. HR was significantly increased after bitter orange versus placebo for hours 2-5 (p < 0.01); the peak difference was 4.2 +/- 4.5 beats/min. CONCLUSIONS: SBP, DBP, and HR were higher for up to 5 hours after a single dose of bitter orange versus placebo in young, healthy adults.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Genetic and environmental determinants of bitter perception and sweet preferences.

OBJECTIVE: Flavor is the primary dimension by which young children determine food acceptance. However, children are not merely miniature adults because sensory systems mature postnatally and their responses to certain tastes differ markedly from adults. Among these differences are heightened preferences for sweet-tasting and greater rejection of bitter-tasting foods. The present study tests the hypothesis that genetic variations in the newly discovered TAS2R38 taste gene as well as cultural differences are associated with differences in sensitivity to the bitter taste of propylthiouracil (PROP) and preferences for sucrose and sweet-tasting foods and beverages in children and adults. DESIGN: Genomic DNA was extracted from cheek cells of a racially and ethnically diverse sample of 143 children and their mothers. Alleles of the gene TAS2R38 were genotyped. Participants were grouped by the first variant site, denoted A49P, because the allele predicts a change from the amino acid alanine (A) to proline (P) at position 49. Henceforth, individuals who were homozygous for the bitter-insensitive allele are referred to as AA, those who were heterozygous for the bitter-insensitive allele are referred to as AP, and those who were homozygous for the bitter-sensitive allele are referred to as PP. Using identical procedures for children and mothers, PROP sensitivity and sucrose preferences were assessed by using forced-choice procedures that were embedded in the context of games that minimized the impact of language development and were sensitive to the cognitive limitations of pediatric populations. Participants were also asked about their preferences in cereals and beverages, and mothers completed a standardized questionnaire that measured various dimensions of their children's temperament. RESULTS: Genetic variation of the A49P allele influenced bitter perception in children and adults. However, the phenotype-genotype relationship was modified by age such that 64% of heterozygous children, but only 43% of the heterozygous mothers, were sensitive to the lowest concentration (56 micromoles/liter) of PROP. Genotypes at the TAS2R38 locus were significantly related to preferences for sucrose and for sweet-tasting beverages and foods such as cereals in children. AP and PP children preferred significantly higher concentrations of sucrose solutions than did AA children. They were also significantly less likely to include milk or water as 1 of their 2 favorite beverages (18.6% vs 40%) and were more likely to include carbonated beverages as 1 of their most preferred beverages (46.4% vs 28.9%). PP children liked cereals and beverages with a significantly higher sugar content. There were also significant main effects of race/ethnicity on preferences and food habits. As a group, black children liked cereals with a significantly higher sugar content than did white children, and they were also significantly more likely to report that they added sugar to their cereals. Unlike children, there was no correspondence between TAS2R38 genotypes and sweet preference in adults. Here, the effects of race/ethnicity were the strongest determinants, thus suggesting that cultural forces and experience may override this genotype effect on sweet preferences. Differences in taste experiences also affected mother-child interaction, especially when the 2 resided in different sensory worlds. That is, children who had 1 or 2 bitter-sensitive alleles, but whose mothers had none, were perceived by their mothers as being more emotional than children who had no bitter-sensitive alleles. CONCLUSION: Variations in a taste receptor gene accounted for a major portion of individual differences in PROP bitterness perception in both children and adults, as well as a portion of individual differences in preferences for sweet flavors in children but not in adults. These findings underscore the advantages of studying genotype effects on behavioral outcomes in children, especially as they relate to taste preferences because cultural forces may sometimes override the A49P genotypic effects in adults. New knowledge about the molecular basis of food likes and dislikes in children, a generation that will struggle with obesity and diabetes, may suggest strategies to overcome diet-induced diseases.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Contribution of different bitter-sensitive taste cells to feeding inhibition in a caterpillar (Manduca sexta).

Many compounds that taste bitter to humans also inhibit feeding in insects. Caterpillars (e.g., Manduca sexta) detect these compounds with a few bitter-sensitive taste cells. This study examined the role of these taste cells in feeding inhibition. Behavioral studies demonstrated that 3 bitter compounds (caffeine, salicin, and aristolochic acid) all inhibited feeding rapidly in Manduca sexta. Electrophysiological studies revealed that each pair of bitter-sensitive taste cell differs in responsiveness to the bitter compounds. Ablation studies indicated that (a) those pairs of bitter-sensitive taste cells that responded vigorously to a particular bitter compound were sufficient to inhibit feeding on diets containing the same compound, but that (b) no pair of bitter-sensitive taste cells was necessary for inhibiting feeding. Thus, the different pairs of bitter-sensitive taste cells appear to make partially redundant contributions to feeding inhibition.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Effect of bitter gourd (Momordica charantia) on glycaemic status in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats.

Bitter gourd (Momordica charantia), a commonly consumed vegetable is used as an adjunct in the management of diabetes mellitus. A study was carried out to examine the effect of edible portion of bitter gourd at 10% level in the diet in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. To evaluate the glycaemic control of bitter gourd during diabetes, diet intake, gain in body weight, water intake, urine sugar, urine volume, glomerular filtration rate and fasting blood glucose profiles were monitored. Water consumption, urine volume and urine sugar were significantly higher in diabetic controls compared to normal rats and bitter gourd feeding alleviated this rise during diabetes by about 30%. Renal hypertrophy was higher in diabetic controls and bitter gourd supplementation, partially, but effectively prevented it (38%) during diabetes. Increased glomerular filtration rate in diabetes was significantly reduced (27%) by bitter gourd. An amelioration of about 30% in fasting blood glucose was observed with bitter gourd feeding in diabetic rats. These results clearly provided experimental evidence that dried bitter gourd powder in the diet at 10% level improved diabetic status signifying its beneficial effect during diabetes.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed1994

Bitter taste in single chorda tympani taste fibers from chimpanzee.

We have found earlier that chimpanzee chorda tympani taste fibers fall into groups that conform with the human taste qualities. This study focuses on bitter taste and its relation to sweet taste. Eight fibers were classified as bitter fibers according to their responses to 31 stimuli. The stimuli included the bitter compounds quinine, denatonium benzoate and caffeine. The results indicate a clear dichotomy between the bitter and sweet fibers. Sweet fibers never responded to the bitter compounds. However, in addition to their responses to the above compounds, some of the bitter fibers were stimulated by other compounds. Most prominent were responses to NaCl-amiloride mixture, KCl and xylitol. In most cases the cause could be assumed to be a bitter taste in the compound. These results suggest that the bitter and sweet tastes are conveyed in specific and separate groups of nerve fibers in the chimpanzee. Because of the closeness between chimpanzee and human, this finding has implications on the question of taste coding in human and the concept of taste qualities.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Chemoreception and perception of the bitterness of isohumulones.

Psychophysical experiments were conducted to determine whether isohumulones share a common receptor mechanism with other bitter compounds, and whether parotid saliva flow affects perception of their bitterness. Findings from a study of inter-individual differences in sensitivity to 23 sweet and/or bitter compounds among 25 subjects using the time-intensity (TI) method suggest that isohumulone and tetrahydroisohumulone may share a common receptor mechanism with other bitter compounds except those with the thiourea moiety. Isohumulone and tetrahydroisohumulone displayed a unique dome-shaped TI profile. The bitterness of the two compounds took longer to develop, but it lasted as long as for other bitter stimuli. In a study of the relation between perception of bitterness in beer and parotid saliva flow in 20 young adults, no significant difference was found among the mean saliva flows triggered by 0, 15 and 30 mg/L of isohumulones added to beer, and no significant correlation was found between saliva flow and maximum intensity or total duration of bitterness.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1986

Contribution of electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions of bitter substances with taste receptor membranes to generation of receptor potentials.

The effects of changed ionic environments on the frog taste nerve responses to the bitter substances were examined. The responses to quinine and strychnine carrying a positive charge were suppressed by an increase in ionic strength of stimulating solutions. It was concluded that electrostatic interaction of these positive bitter substances with the receptor membranes greatly contributes to the adsorption of the substances on the membranes and that this interaction was suppressed by an increase in ionic strength. The responses to neutral bitter substances (caffeine and theophylline) were unchanged by an increase in salt concentration. The zeta potential of the mouse neuroblastoma (N-18 clone), which was depolarized by various bitter substances similarly to a taste cell, was measured in the presence of the bitter substances. The zeta potential was a little changed by quinine and practically unchanged by strychnine, caffeine and theophylline. The membrane fluidity of the N-18 cell monitored with 2-(9-anthroyloxy)stearic acid was changed in response to the bitter substances, while the fluidity monitored with 12-(9-anthroyloxy)stearic acid or 1,6-diphenyl-1,3,5-hexatriene was unchanged. This suggested that the bitter substances are adsorbed on the hydrophobic region near the surface and induce a conformational change at the region. The depolarization by the bitter substances seems to stem from changes in the "boundary potential" at the region near the surface within the membrane interior.

Adsorption↗
PubMed2005

Elimination of bitter, disgusting tastes of drugs and foods by cyclodextrins.

The bitter taste of drugs, food components, and any other substances which get in the mouth as dissolved in an aqueous solution, or in the saliva, can be strongly reduced or fully eliminated, if the bitter component forms an inclusion complex with an appropriate cyclodextrin (CD). The value of the complex association constant (determined by the structure of the bitter 'guest' molecule and the size and eventual substitution of the 'host' CD molecule), the temperature and the host/guest ratio determine the extent of complexation of the guest molecule (percentage of complexation) at the equilibrium. The K(ass) for most drug/CD complexes at 36 degrees C buccal cavity temperature is between 10(2) and 10(4) mol-1. If the unit dose (of a sublingual or chewing tablet, chewing gum) with a bitter drug (molecular weight of about 150, forming a 1:1 complex with betaCD) is approximately 10mg then the betaCD can be taken in a 5- or even 10-fold molar excess. Under such conditions more than 99% of the bitter drug is complexed, and because complexed molecules cannot react with the taste buds in the buccal cavity no bitter taste is perceived. Frequently, preparation of the drug/CD complex is not necessary, because the betaCD is present in a large excess, dissolved very quickly in the saliva and results in a saturated CD solution. Therefore, the complexation of the bitter drug is completed very rapidly. Only dissolved substances have taste and only CD complexable drug molecules can become debittered by CDs. Bitter, astringent components of foods (e.g. soya), beverages (e.g. naringin in citrus fruit juice, or chlorogenic acid and polyphenols in coffee) cigarette smoke (nicotine) also can be complexed and their taste reduced or fully eliminated.

Cyclodextrins↗