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PubMed1990

Effects of early parent touch on preterm infants' heart rates and arterial oxygen saturation levels.

A descriptive exploratory design was used in this study to evaluate the effects of early parent touch on the heart rates and arterial oxygen (O2) saturation levels of 36 preterm infants. The infants were between 27-33 weeks gestational age at birth, and were free of congenital defects. Infants were videotaped during parent visits on up to three separate occasions during the first month of life. Parents were encouraged to interact with their infants as they usually would, and data on the infants' heart rates and O2 saturation levels were recorded every 6 seconds on a portable computer that was interfaced with the infants' monitors. Mean O2 saturation levels were significantly lower during parent touch than during baseline periods on 45% of the visits, and significantly higher during parent touch periods on 19% of the visits. O2 saturation variability was greater during periods of parent touch, and there were more abnormal O2 saturation values during parent touch than during baseline periods. Mean heart rates during parent touch were significantly lower compared to baseline on 17% of the visits, and were higher during parent touch on 43% of the visits. There were no overall differences in mean heart rates between baseline, parent touch and post-visit classifications, although heart rate variability was greater during periods of parent touch. The results indicate that preterm infants' responses to early parent touch are variable, and suggest that blanket policies that limit parent touch during the early weeks of life may not be appropriate.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Cues↗

PubMed1994

Effects of sex and sex roles on avoidance of same- and opposite-sex touch.

Touch and touch avoidance are important facets of interpersonal relations. Touch avoidance has been related to sex, but the relationship between touch and sex roles has not been widely substantiated. 259 undergraduate students participated in a procedure designed to test the relationship between sex, sex roles, and same-sex and opposite-sex touch avoidance. Significant differences were reported between men and women on same-sex touch avoidance but not on opposite-sex touch avoidance. Participants high on androgyny reported less same-sex and opposite-sex touch avoidance than did subjects low on androgyny. No interactive effect between sex and androgyny was found for either same-sex or opposite-sex touch avoidance. Regression procedures indicated predictive models for sex and androgyny in relation to same-sex and opposite-sex touch avoidance. Specific conclusions regarding the relationships among sex, androgyny, and touch avoidance were stated.

Female↗

PubMed1989

Affectional touch in critical care nursing: a descriptive study.

The purpose of this study was to describe selected qualitative and quantitative factors present in nursing situations involving affectional touch. Natural field observation of 30 nurse-patient dyads in three hospital critical care units yielded frequency data in four categories: form of affectional touch, Weiss' qualitative factors, accompaniments, and stimulus. Frequencies of affectional touch and of proximity without touch were also obtained. Modal instances of affectional touch in a 1-hour period were 2, with a range of 0 to 17. Form of affectional touch most frequently used was sustained stationary, with stroking least frequent. The majority of instances of affectional touch were of short duration and low intensity, with visible reaction indicating comfort in approximately two thirds of the instances. Almost three fourths of the instances were accompanied by visual regard and two thirds by vocalization. Patient stimulus before affectional touch was indirect in 52% of the instances and unidentified in another 32%. This study provides clear evidence that, although the use of touch as a nursing comfort measure is widely advocated, affectional touch is infrequent. These results provide information useful to the further development of prescriptive theory for affectional touch in nursing practice situations.

Adult↗

PubMed1998

Regulation of touch receptor differentiation by the Caenorhabditis elegans mec-3 and unc-86 genes.

The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans possesses six morphologically similar neurons that are responsible for sensing gentle touch to the body. Previous genetic studies identified genes that are necessary for the production and differentiation of these touch cells. In particular, unc-86 encodes a POU-type homeodomain protein needed for the production of the touch cells, while mec-3 encodes a LIM-type homeodomain protein needed for the differentiation of the touch cells. Molecular studies showed that MEC-3 and UNC-86 bind cooperatively to sites in the mec-3 promoter and can synergistically activate transcription from it in vitro. Here we show that UNC-86::MEC-3 hetero-oligomer-binding sites are also found in the promoters of two presumed targets of mec-3, the mec-4 and mec-7 genes, that are necessary for the function of the touch cells. These sites, which are well-conserved in the related nematode C. briggsae, are required for promoter activity. When one of the binding sites is cloned into a heterologous promoter, expression is found in the touch cells and two to four other cells that express mec-3 and unc-86. These data support a model in which touch-cell differentiation is specified, in part, by the UNC-86::MEC-3 hetero-oligomer and not by MEC-3 alone. Ectopic expression of mec-3, driven by a heat-shock promoter, also supports this hypothesis: the acquisition of touch-cell characteristics by several additional cells under these conditions required unc-86. Since the touch-cell lineages express UNC-86 before MEC-3, MEC-3 appears to modify the activity of UNC-86, leading to touch-cell-specific gene expression. Because both UNC-86 and MEC-3 have activation domains, the formation of the hetero-oligomer may create a strong activator. In the modification of UNC-86 function by MEC-3 in the touch cells, these studies provide an example of how the sequential activation of transcription factors can determine cell fate within particular cell lineages.

Animals↗

PubMed2002

Effects of different types of light touch on postural sway.

When a standing person applies a light finger touch to an external stable object, postural sway is reduced. We tested a hypothesis that two factors related to touch can induce this effect, the presence of a stable reference point and the modulation of contact forces leading to tissue deformation. Force platform signals were analyzed while subjects stood quietly with or without additional light touch to an external object (contact forces under 1 N). The point of touch on the body was manipulated. We also investigated the effects of active touch vs fixation of a finger at a point in external space. The results show that touch to the head or neck can be more effective in reducing body sway than a finger touch. A larger reduction in sway was observed when the finger was fixed in a clip (the net forces between the clip and the point of its fixation to the stand were under 1 N) as compared to a free light touch to a pad. The subjects showed a reduction in postural sway while holding a load suspended using a pulley system; in this situation, contact with the load via the pulley provided modulation of contact forces but not a fixed reference point. This finding emphasizes the importance of such factors as stability of the contact point and modulation of contact forces, as compared to active touch or to an implicit task of stabilizing the kinematic chain. The system of postural stabilization can reduce postural sway, making use of either of two sources of sensory information associated with touch, one related to providing a fixed reference point in space, and the other related to transient force changes at the point of contact related to the sway.

Acoustic Stimulation↗

PubMed1989

A review of the literature relating to touch and its use in intensive care.

This literature review is an exploration of the available literature on and surrounding the subject of touch in order to help nurses to understand this subject and use touch effectively in nursing care. The study is focused particularly on the use of touch in intensive care as this is the area of interest of the author, and several writers have suggested touch is of great importance in this area. The literature on communication in all its forms and particularly in intensive care is discussed first as this explains the framework in which touch occurs and how it fits into nursing care. Theories about touch and studies of the use of touch are linked to try to show the human need, and taboos about touch. This is related to the use of touch by nurses and other health care workers particularly in intensive care. Recommendations are made, from the information gained from the literature, about how nurses' use of touch as part of nursing care can be improved.

Attitude of Health Personnel↗

PubMed2004

A comparison of cold, pinprick and touch for assessing the level of spinal block at caesarean section.

The sensory block levels of 102 women undergoing caesarean section under spinal anaesthesia were assessed by four different methods: sharp pinprick (Neurotip tester pin), cold (ethyl chloride spray), touch (Neurotip tester pin), touch (ethyl chloride spray). While the data indicate a median difference of some 2 segments between the levels of block assessed by sharp pinprick or cold, and touch, there was no constant relationship between these levels of block within the group nor within individual patients: variable and at times very large differences in the levels of block assessed among these modalities existed: up to 10 segments (pinprick - touch); 11 segments (cold - touch). For any one individual, it is not possible to predict the level of block to touch from a known level of block to sharp pinprick or cold. To facilitate comparison of results across future studies it is suggested that block levels to touch sensation should always be reported. The results suggest that, for clinical purposes, there is no difference in outcomes whether Neurotip touch or ethyl chloride spray touch sensations are used. When using diamorphine 100 micrograms/mL mixed with bupivacaine 0.5% w/v in 8% dextrose, no patient felt any pain or discomfort provided the block to Neurotip or ethyl chloride touch sensations included T6 or above.

Adult↗

PubMed1990

Gender patterns in social touch: the impact of setting and age.

This study examined the impact of age of participants and the setting in which touch occurred on gender patterns in 799 instances of observed intentional touch. Gender asymmetry, a pattern in which men are more likely to touch women than vice versa, was observed when touch between adults was examined but not when touch involving children was examined. Adult touch interactions occurring in public, nonintimate settings showed gender asymmetry, but adult touch interactions occurring in greeting or leave-taking settings did not. Cross-sex touch was more prevalent among adults, whereas same-sex touch was more prevalent when a child was involved. Implications for theoretical perspectives on gender and touch are discussed.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2003

Meanings of giving touch in the care of older patients: becoming a valuable person and professional.

Touch is central to nursing and health care workers frequently touch their patients, consciously or unconsciously in their interactions with them. Most literature has studied touch from a patient perspective, thus inquiry about professionals' experiences are rare. The aim of this study was to illuminate meanings of giving touch in nursing care of older patients. To understand the meaning of lived experiences of giving touch in care of older patients, interviews with 12 health care professionals in northern Sweden were analysed using a phenomenological-hermeneutic approach influenced by the philosophy of Ricoeur. The findings show that giving touch in the care of older patients is a transforming experience, where one suddenly perceives oneself as both a valuable person and professional who no longer powerlessly confronts patients' haunted and disrupted bodies, but who, by means of touch, has gained power to ease this suffering. The experience also transforms the way one regards older patients. Instead of seeing a severely demanding patient suffering from dementia and/or pain, one is able to see the person behind the disease as a human being, like oneself. A relationship described as calm, friendly and humane is created between caregiver and patient when giving touch, a relationship that transcends the moment of touch and influences one's way of caring. This understanding is presented using the theoretical framework of the philosophy of Marcel. Giving touch has the power to shed new light on health care professionals' experiences of caring for older patients suffering from dementia and/or pain, giving them the power to be a valuable person and professional.

Aged↗

PubMed1994

Role of the mother's touch in failure to thrive: a preliminary investigation.

OBJECTIVE: This study investigated the hypothesis that specific types of maternal touch that might promote infant growth are reduced in cases of failure to thrive (FTT) and tested reports that maternal physical interaction and physical affection are diminished in FTT. METHODS: Frequencies of operationally defined maternal touch categories were scored by blinded raters from videotaped mother-child feeding and play interactions of 21 children, aged 9 to 19 months, with FTT and 18 normally growing comparison children. After scoring and statistical analyses were completed, investigators unblinded to group status and clinical data reviewed the videotapes of the dyads with the lowest touch scores. RESULTS: Mothers of children with FTT provided less matter-of-fact touch in feeding (p = .017) and unintentional touch in play (p = .048) than the comparison group, and there was a trend (p = .082) for them to provide less proprioceptive stimulation in play. Unblinded case reviews indicate that, among children with FTT, extremely infrequent touch signals a marked touch aversion by either the mother or child. CONCLUSIONS: Types of maternal touch that may promote growth or facilitate feeding are reduced in FTT, due, in extreme cases, to maternal or child touch aversion. Clinicians evaluating FTT should be alert to very infrequent touch in the mother-child interaction and consider whether it may represent a maternal intolerance of physical contact with her infant or a problem with the infant's feeding competence.

Child, Preschool↗

PubMed1989

Genetic control of differentiation of the Caenorhabditis elegans touch receptor neurons.

The genetic control of neuronal differentiation has been studied by examining mutations that affect the development and function of the six touch receptor neurons of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. By screening for touch-insensitive mutants, it has been possible to identify 18 genes (represented by 417 mutations) that are required at various stages in the developmental program for touch cell differentiation. Two of the genes are needed for the generation of precursors in the touch cell lineages; without the precursors, touch cells are not made. A third gene, mec-3, specifies the differentiation of the touch cells, probably by acting as a transcription factor. The remaining 15 genes are likely targets of mec-3 action; mutants defective in these genes have nonfunctioning, yet differentiated, touch cells. Some of these latter genes are needed for the formation of cell-specific components of the touch cells, such as a set of microtubules that are only found in these cells. The study of the touch genes should help us understand how touch cell fate is determined, how microtubule form is specified, and, perhaps, how mechanical stimuli are transduced.

Animals↗

PubMed1997

Cocaine impairs acquisition of an autoshaped lever-touch response.

The effects of daily peripheral (IP) post-session injection of cocaine on the development of an autoshaped lever-touch response in rats were investigated. Male Sprague-Dawley rats received ten daily pairings of a retractable lever (conditioned stimulus; CS) and food delivery (unconditioned stimulus; UCS). Food delivery occurred if the subjects contacted the extended lever within 10 s, or, if the subjects failed to contact the lever, at the end of the 10-s stimulus interval. These contingencies resulted in increased lever-touch responses over 10 days of conditioning. Cocaine (5.6-19.0 mg/kg) impaired development of the lever-touch response, as compared to saline-treated control subjects. Because the injections were given immediately after each conditioning session, we suggest that cocaine affects the neural processes involved in consolidation. Three additional control experiments support this suggestion. The effect of cocaine on lever-touch acquisition was time-dependent as daily injection of cocaine (5.6 mg/kg) 3 h after each conditioning session did not affect lever-touch acquisition. In addition, the effect of cocaine was dependent upon the explicit pairing of lever extension (CS) and food delivery (UCS) as immediate post-session cocaine (5.6 mg/kg) administration did not alter responding when the presentation of both the CS and the UCS was uncorrelated. Cocaine (5.6 mg/kg) administered to subjects previously trained to a performance criterion did not affect lever-touch responding, indicating that cocaine administration (5.6 mg/kg) impairs the development, but not the maintenance, of autoshaped lever-touch responding. In contrast, the highest dose of cocaine tested, 19.0 mg/kg, did decrease lever-touch responding in well-trained subjects, indicating that post-session administration of higher doses of cocaine can produce aversive effects that may affect both the acquisition and maintenance of appetitively motivated behavior in the rat. The relative contributions of the instrumental and classical associations inherent in the autoshaping procedure were investigated by altering response contingencies. Rats showed no evidence of learning the lever-touch response when lever insertion and food delivery were positively correlated, and no explicit response contingency was present (classical conditioning); further, cocaine-treated subjects did not differ from saline-treated subjects. However, cocaine did impair lever-touch responding in the instrumental version of the task. Taken together, these results show that the post-session administration of cocaine can impair the acquisition of a multi-trial, multi-session appetitively motivated response.

Animals↗

PubMed1995

Touch-evoked agitation produced by spinally administered phospholipid emulsion and liposomes in rats. Structure-activity relation.

BACKGROUND: Phospholipid-based liposomes can alter the kinetics of spinally administered agents. We have observed that spinal delivery of these preparations results in an unexpected touch-evoked agitation, a state in which light touch evokes vocalization by the rat. In the current study we characterized this agitated state induced by various liposome preparations. METHODS: Rats prepared with lumbar intrathecal catheters received a variety of phospholipids delivered spinally as emulsions or as liposomes. Before and after injection, the animal's hot-plate latency (52.5 degrees C surface), spontaneous mobility, and spontaneous and evoked pain behavior were assessed. RESULTS: Spinal delivery of L-alpha-phosphatidylcholine of egg yolk (L-EPC) and the phospholipase hydrolysis product (lyso-L-alpha-phosphatidylcholine [lyso-L-EPC]) produced dose-dependent touch-evoked agitation; the order of potency and rapidity of onset was lyso-L-EPC > L-EPC, with no difference in activity whether administered as an emulsion or as a liposome preparation. Examination of the activity of a series of pure phospholipids revealed the ordering of touch-evoked agitation potency (where PC = phosphatidylcholine) to be L-monopalmitoyl-PC (lyso product of L-dipalmitoyl-PC) > L-dipalmitoyl-PC > L-distearoyl-PC, L-dioleoyl-PC >> L-dilauroyl-PC > L-dimyristoyl-PC; D-dipalmitoyl-PC = 0. The effect of unsaturation on touch-evoked agitation cannot be predicted because dioleoyl-PC and dioleoyl phosphatidylglycerol produced touch-evoked agitation but dipalmitoleoyl-PC did not. Substitution of glycerol for choline as the head group had no influence on touch-evoked agitation. Spinal treatment with an inhibitor of phospholipase (mepacrine) or a cyclooxygenase (ketorolac) blocked the touch-evoked agitation of L-EPC but not that of lyso-L-EPC. CONCLUSIONS: These results emphasize that certain L-isomeric phospholipids with their gel-transition temperatures near body temperature can produce prominent touch-evoked agitation after spinal delivery, an effect likely mediated by a phospholipase hydrolysis product. This touch-evoked agitation, which is consistent with neurotoxicity reported in the early literature on lysophospholipids, suggests that the choice of lipids for the formulation of liposomes intended for spinal drug delivery should be carefully considered.

Animals↗

PubMed1996

Touch sensation in Caenorhabditis elegans.

The nematode C. elegans exhibits a variety of responses to touch. When specific sets of mechanosensory neurons are killed with a laser, specific touch responses are abolished. Many mutations that result in defective mechanosensation have been identified. Some of the mutations define genes that specify the fate of a set of mechanoreceptors called the touch cells, which mediate response to light touch to the body of the worm. Genes specifying touch cell fate appear to regulate genes that encode touch-cell differentiation proteins, including apparent subunits of a touch-cell-specific ion channel, rare mutant forms of which lead to swelling and lysis of the touch cells. Molecular attachments of the ion channel, both to extracellular matrix components and, intracellularly, to a special large-diameter microtubule, may be required for mechanical gating of the channel. A mechanoreceptor-interneuron-motorneuron reflex circuit for response to light touch has been proposed.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Social anxiety and response to touch: incongruence between self-evaluative and physiological reactions.

Touch is an important form of social interaction, and one that can have powerful emotional consequences. Appropriate touch can be calming, while inappropriate touch can be anxiety provoking. To examine the impact of social touching, this study compared socially high-anxious (N=48) and low-anxious (N=47) women's attitudes concerning social touch, as well as their affective and physiological responses to a wrist touch by a male experimenter. Compared to low-anxious participants, high-anxious participants reported greater anxiety to a variety of social situations involving touch. Consistent with these reports, socially anxious participants reacted to the experimenter's touch with markedly greater increases in self-reported anxiety, self-consciousness, and embarrassment. Physiologically, low-anxious and high-anxious participants showed a distinct pattern of sympathetic-parasympathetic coactivation, as reflected by decreased heart rate and tidal volume, and increased respiratory sinus arrhythmia, skin conductance, systolic/diastolic blood pressure, stroke volume, and respiratory rate. Interestingly, physiological responses were comparable in low and high-anxious groups. These findings indicate that social anxiety is accompanied by heightened aversion towards social situations that involve touch, but this enhanced aversion and negative-emotion report is not reflected in differential physiological responding.

Adolescent↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Touch in the counselling relationship: an exploratory study.

There is a continuum of views on the extent to which touch enhances the treatment process of patients. Health professionals must deal with the use of touch in some way, even if their final decision is not to use it. Health professionals were interviewed about personal touch as a part of their professional relationships with patients. Even though the subjects using touch differed in health professions and primary theoretical orientations, a commonality was the belief in a strong person-to-person relationship as an integral part of the helping process. Instruction concerning touch appears to be inconsistent in the curricula of health-professional schools. Thus sensitivity to the use of touch is more likely to develop through professional experience. Touch is more likely to be used in a fee-for-service, private practice setting. The part of the body most likely to be touched is a hand, and possible sexual misinterpretation of touch is best dealt with openly and at once.

Attitude of Health Personnel↗

PubMed1979

Multidimensional reaction to therapeutic touch in a hospital setting.

A field experiment focused on some implication of interpersonal touch not explored in earlier research. Conceptually, the research included measuring the effects of touch over a relatively long time frame, for a broad range of response dimensions, and in a nonreactive setting characterized by dependency. On an applied level, the research studied the value of touch as a concomitant of nurse-patient interactions. Specifically, a 2 (touch vs. no touch) X 2 (male vs. female) between-subjects design assessed the effects of nurses touching patients, during preoperative teaching, on patient affective, evaluative, behavioral, and physiological responses. Results indicated that female subjects in the touch condition experienced more favorable affective, behavioral, and physiological reactions than a no-touch control group. In contrast, males in the touch condition reacted more negatively than control subjects on these dimensions.

Affect↗

PubMed1983

A personal log method for investigating interpersonal touch.

Most of the research on interpersonal touch has involved public settings but much of our significant contact takes place in private settings. The body-accessibility studies included touch in both public and private settings, but rates of touch and settings were not reported. In the present study 76 subjects kept a log of touches received, their relationship to the toucher, the setting, and their rating of the pleasantness of the touch. There were no gender differences in rates of touch. Most touches occurred in private settings, particularly touches in personal body areas. A variety of sexual touches were reported.

Environment↗