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PubMed2006

Girls' and mothers' social anxiety, social skills, and loneliness: associations after accounting for depressive symptoms.

This study examined, in 102 mother-daughter dyads, whether (a) girls' social skills and loneliness are related to girls' social anxiety, after adjusting for girls' depressive symptoms, and (b) mothers' social functioning (social anxiety, social skills, and loneliness) is related to girls' social anxiety, after accounting for girls' social functioning (social skills and loneliness) and mothers' and girls' depressive symptoms. After accounting for girls' depression, girls' loneliness (and not social skills) was related to girls' self-reported social anxiety and girls' social skills (and not loneliness) were related to mothers' reports of girls' social anxiety. Mothers' social functioning accounted for significant variance in girls' social anxiety, beyond that accounted for by girls' social functioning and mothers' and girls' depression. Mothers' loneliness and fear of negative evaluation showed significant relations to girls' social anxiety when variance attributable to other variables was partialed out, whereas mothers' social skills and social avoidance and distress did not. Directions for future research on social anxiety are highlighted.

Adult↗
PubMed1992

Social environment and health--a social epidemiological frame of reference.

Growing interest in epidemiological studies and prevention has led to increased awareness of the importance of the social environment to health. In this field of research, which might be designated social epidemiology, there is today extensive research into the possible association between different types of social factors and ill-health in the population. This article presents a social epidemiological frame of reference and some social factors of importance when one is studying the relationships between the social environment and health. Important social factors in the model are social stratification, social network, social support and life-style factors. Two other main categories of social factors in the model are circumstances and events related to social stratification or occupation and social network respectively. These may be factors in the external or internal work environment and variables describing the general activity level of the individual or different types of stressful social network-related life events. Other important factors in the model are physiological and clinical factors and three different types of health indicator. In the field of social epidemiological research, there is an increasing need for the development of theoretical models and frameworks as support in the analysis of social factors and health. These could be based on experience and tradition in both epidemiological research and the social sciences.

Epidemiologic Methods↗
PubMed2005

Cytotoxic lesions of the hippocampus do not impair social recognition memory in socially housed rats.

Socially housed mice with cytotoxic lesions of the hippocampus do not exhibit social recognition memory 30 min following exposure to a juvenile mouse, however the social recognition memory of singly housed rats is unimpaired. The present study tests the hypothesis that social housing of rats could render social recognition memory hippocampally dependent as seen for mice. Rats were housed with juveniles or with adults. Two social recognition one-animal tests paralleling those used with mice were carried out. Seven social discrimination two-animal tests were also given. Sham operated and hippocampally lesioned rats had normal social memory at 30 min whether socially housed for 24, 48 h, 7 or 8 days prior to testing. These findings support other results indicating the hippocampus proper is not required for normal social memory in rats. In a final experiment, rats socially housed in groups of three since weaning, were tested for 30 min and 24 h social memory. Unlike mice, rats socially housed throughout life exhibited social memory only at 30 min, but not at 24 h. Manipulations that extend social memory in rats may be required to render social memory hippocampally dependent or rats and mice may differ in the neural mediation of social memory.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Explaining the social gradient in smoking in pregnancy: early life course accumulation and cross-sectional clustering of social risk exposures in the 1958 British national cohort.

Smoking in pregnancy is a major determinant of low birthweight and a range of adverse infant health outcomes. There is a well-established social gradient in smoking in pregnancy in the US and northern Europe. Social gradients in health-related behaviours may result from longitudinal accumulation and cross-sectional clustering of social risk exposures. There is, however, no published confirmation of this explanation in empirical data with smoking in pregnancy as the outcome. This study aimed to test the effects of longitudinal accumulation and cross-sectional clustering of social risk exposures on smoking in pregnancy using data on the first pregnancies of 3163 female members of the 1958 British national cohort. Social class at birth and aged 11 years was used to create three dichotomous variables representing cumulative social class (both manual, one manual and one non-manual, both non-manual) early in the lifecourse. Cross-sectional clustering of social risk was represented by four dichotomous variables created from combinations of maternal age (<20 vs. 20+), own social class (manual vs. non-manual) and educational attainment (low vs. other). Cumulative social class in early childhood was associated with smoking in pregnancy in bivariate analysis but not after adjustment for cross-sectional clustering of social risk exposures. However, women who had been in the manual social groups at birth and 11 years were at increased risk of cross-sectional clustering of social risk exposures around pregnancy suggesting a pathway from early lifecourse risk exposure to social risk factors associated with a high risk of smoking in pregnancy. These findings suggest that the social gradient in smoking in pregnancy results from longitudinal accumulation and cross-sectional clustering of social risk exposures. Interventions aimed at reducing social inequalities in smoking in pregnancy need to account for cumulative and cross-sectionally clustered effects of social risk exposures.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1999

Social behavior and social motivation in adolescent rats: role of housing conditions and partner's activity.

The present study investigated 1) the effects of individual and grouped housing on social investigation, social contact behavior, and play behavior in adolescent rats tested with low socially active (grouped) and high socially active (isolated) play partners; and 2) the effects of long-term (8 days) and short-term (24 h) isolation on social behavioral manifestations and social motivation in terms of preference or avoidance of play partners. Social isolation of adolescent rats activated play behavior and social behaviors different from play, but play was predominantly affected under the conditions of this study. Long-term isolation was more effective than short-term, and resulted in greater manifestation of play and social preference. Adolescent rats were able to modify their social behaviors in response to social activity of the play partner: in isolated animals exposed to low socially active group-housed partners, play behavior was transformed into social activities unrelated to play; exposure of group-housed adolescents to high socially active previously isolated partners resulted in an increase of play behavior. Testing that allowed avoidance of social contacts revealed a dissociation between manifestations of play behavior and social motivation: group-housed play partners of isolated animals showed elevated levels of play behavior but a tendency to avoid their isolated pairmates.

Aging↗
PubMed2005

Principles, processes, and puzzles of social cognition: an introduction for the special issue on social cognitive neuroscience.

This article introduces the special issue of NeuroImage focused on social cognitive neuroscience. Social psychology has a rich history of making sense of the often paradoxical aspects of social cognition and the social world. This article reviews the principles, processes, and puzzles of social cognition and behavior that have been examined by social psychologists for decades. Five principles of social cognition and behavior are reviewed including: (1) the power of the situation over behavior, (2) blindness for situational influences, (3) social perception and self-perception are constructive processes, (4) blindness for the constructed nature of social and self-perception, and (5) self-processes are social. Four processes of social cognition are reviewed including: (1) cognitive architecture; (2) automaticity and control; (3) motivated reasoning; and (4) accessibility, frames, and expectations. Finally, five areas of social cognition that contain enduring puzzles are described including (1) the self, (2) attitudes, (3) reflective social cognition, (4) automatic social cognition, and (5) social motives. In several of the areas of study reviewed, cognitive neuroscience is well positioned to make important contributions to these research traditions either by allowing for new tests of hypotheses or by allowing for unobtrusive measurement of social cognitive processes.

Attitude↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Acute threat to the social self: shame, social self-esteem, and cortisol activity.

OBJECTIVE: Our Social Self Preservation Theory asserts that situations which threaten the "social self" (ie, one's social value or standing) elicit increased feelings of low social worth (eg, shame), decrements in social self-esteem, and increases in cortisol, a hormone released by the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. To test our theoretical premise, cognitive, emotional, and physiological responses to the performance of laboratory stressor tasks were compared in participants who performed these tasks in the presence or absence of social-self threat. METHODS: Pre- and poststressor emotion, self-esteem, heart rate, blood pressure, and salivary cortisol were compared in 81 participants randomly assigned to complete speech and mental arithmetic stress tasks with social evaluation present (n = 41) or absent (n = 40). RESULTS: As hypothesized, participants in the social evaluation condition exhibited greater increases in shame and greater decrements in social self-esteem. Other psychological states (eg, anxiety, performance self-esteem) did not show differential changes as a function of the social context. Salivary cortisol increased in social evaluation condition participants but did not increase in participants who performed the same tasks in the absence of social evaluation. Cortisol increases were greater in participants who experienced greater increases in shame and greater decreases in social self-esteem under social-self threat. CONCLUSION: Threat to the social self is an important elicitor of shame experience, decreases in social self-esteem and cortisol increases under demanding performance conditions. Cortisol changes may be specifically tied to the experience of emotions and cognitions reflecting low self-worth in this context.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1994

Social network, social support and dental status in elderly Swedish men.

The objective of this study was to investigate whether there were associations between different aspects of social network and social support and dental status. The study sample (n = 621) comprised a random half of all male residents in Malmö, Sweden, born in 1914. Five hundred (80.5%) participated. Eight conceptually different aspects of social networks and social support were measured, and all men were clinically examined regarding number of teeth, prevalence of removable dentures, fixed bridges and anterior open tooth spaces. We found that some aspects of dental status were associated with social class, while others were associated with different aspects of social network and social support. Prevalence of complete dentures and fixed bridges was strongly associated with social class, a low number of functioning teeth was associated with both low social class belonging and an insufficient social network and social support, while anterior open tooth spaces were associated mostly with an insufficient social network and social support. This study shows that there are significant associations between some aspects of dental status and the social network and social support of the individual, while other aspects of dental status are associated with social class, which from a psychosocial perspective contribute to a deeper understanding of the backgrounds of dental status.

Aged↗
PubMed1992

Studies of hospital social stays in the frail elderly and their relationship to the intensity of social work intervention.

The elderly frequently suffer long lengths of hospital stay (LOS). These long stays are often associated with long social care stays which occur when patients no longer require acute care and are awaiting post-discharge services. In this study, actual acute care LOS and social care LOS were studied specifically in hospitalized frail elderly. Our data demonstrate that frail elderly receiving only acute care do not suffer markedly prolonged total LOS (TLOS). However, in hospitalized frail elderly patients who experience acute care and social care stays, social care LOS accounts for over half of all hospital days. When patients were grouped and studied according to the type of post-discharge services being sought by the health care team, significant differences in acute LOS and social care LOS were noted. Subgroups of patients were also identified among the various groups which differed significantly in their LOS parameters. Patients who required more than one discharge plan during the course of hospitalization experienced the longest hospital stays of all groups, and spent almost 70% of these days receiving non-acute social care. In a study of the relationship between the intensity of social work intervention and social care LOS in the frail elderly, a statistically significant relationship was noted between the timing and frequency of social work intervention and the actual length of social care stays. Early and frequent social work interventions were associated with significantly shorter social care LOS. We conclude that the study of TLOS should include acute LOS and social care LOS to obtain a reliable measure of the course and cost of hospital care for the frail elderly. The study of social care subgroups may facilitate future investigations to define the social care problems which contribute most to TLOS, and the patient populations which should be most heavily targeted for early and intensive social work intervention.

Aged↗
PubMed2005

Gender differences in social support for socially anxious individuals.

Given that social anxiety disorder is a common, chronic, debilitating disorder and socially anxious women appear to have different experiences related to social development and social support than men, it is essential that the gender differences in social anxiety and social support be understood. The present study examined perceived social support quantity and satisfaction in 23 women and 28 men seeking treatment for social anxiety disorder. Contrary to expectations, men and women did not differ on measures of social support. However, younger, unmarried women reported having smaller social support networks and less satisfaction with their social support networks than older, married women. Analyses of socially anxious men did not reveal such a pattern. The current study provides preliminary evidence that younger, single women have social support networks that are less satisfying than the social support networks of older, married women. Inclusion of social support modules within a cognitive behavioral treatment approach for social anxiety disorder may be warranted, particularly for young, unmarried women.

Adult↗
PubMed1998

Social competence, social support, and attachment: demarcation of construct domains, measurement, and paths of influence for preschool children attending Head Start.

Two studies designed to (1) explore measurement issues for the construct domains of social competence and social support and (2) test a model relating social competence to social support and to child-parent attachment for low-income (primarily African American) preschool children attending Head Start are reported. In Study 1, the definition, measurement, and structure of the social competence construct are evaluated in 2 samples of children. For Study 1A, 167 4-year-old children were assessed with a battery of observation, interview, and Q-sort measures. Relations among the measures suggested a hierarchical structure that was tested using a structural equation model. Results from the analysis supported the conjecture that social competence should be viewed as a hierarchically organized construct. In Study 1B, the model was tested again for a group of 3- and 4-year-old children (n = 265), using a modified set of measures. The general structure of the model from Study 1A was reproduced in this independent sample, although paths from the second-order factor to lower-order factors were not perfectly coordinated across samples. In Study 2, data for a subset of the children in Study 1B (n = 182), gathered with respect to features of their social networks, were examined to assess the structure of their social support networks. Descriptive and structural equation analyses are reported. Sixty-nine of these children were observed at home with their mothers and described using the Waters Attachment Q-sort. A structural equation model testing relations consistent with causal pathways from attachment security to both social support networks and to social competence and from the social support network variable to social competence with peers fit these data with a high degree of confidence. Subsequent analyses locating social competence as antecedent to attachment security were not significant. We conclude that the construct domains of social competence and social support networks can be meaningfully measured for preschool children and that individual differences with respect to these construct domains are related to child-parent relationship qualities.

Child Development↗
PubMed1995

Social isolation and social interaction alter regional brain opioid receptor binding in rats.

Endogenous opioid systems have been implicated in the consequences of social isolation and in the regulation of social behavior, although their precise role is not clear. There is not much information on a possible locus in the brain at which opioids exert their effects on social behavior. In an effort to address this issue we analyzed regional opioidergic activity upon social isolation-induced social interaction using in vivo autoradiography. Animals were either socially isolated for 7 days or group housed, and tested singly or in a dyadic encounter. Subsequently, a tracer dose of [3H]diprenorphine was administered and in vivo autoradiographic analysis was performed. Seven days of social isolation caused changes in both social behavior (dyadic encounters) and non-social behavior (singly tested animals). Opioid receptor binding was increased in the medial prefrontal cortex and the parafascicular area in isolates, suggesting that social isolation may evoke an upregulation of opioid receptors in these areas. Social interaction increased opioid binding in the parafascicular area of non-isolated rats. In substantia nigra para compacta and ventral tegmental area binding was increased upon social isolation, and social interaction decreased opioid binding in isolates, but these changes failed to reach significance. These observed local changes in opioid receptor binding suggest a role for opioid systems in discrete areas in the consequences of social isolation and the regulation of social behavior in rats.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Social memory, social stress, and economic behaviors.

Social memory plays a pivotal role in social behaviors, from mating behaviors to cooperative behaviors based on reciprocal altruism. More specifically, social/person recognition memory is supposed, by behavioral-economic and game-theoretic analysis, to be required for tit-for-tat like cooperative behaviors to evolve under the N-person iterated prisoner's dilemma game condition. Meanwhile, humans are known to show a social stress response during face-to-face social interactions, which might affect economic behaviors. Furthermore, it is known that there are individual differences in a social stress response, which might be reflected in individual differences in various types of economic behaviors, partially via different capacities of social memory. In the present study, we investigated the acute effects of social stress-induced free cortisol (a stress hormone) elevation on hippocampus-dependent social memory by utilizing the Trier social stress test (consisting of a public speech and a mental arithmetic task). We also examine the correlation between an economic behavior-related personality trait (i.e., general trust scale) and social stress-induced cortisol elevations. We found that (1) social stress acutely impairs social memory during social interaction and (2) interpersonal trust reduces social stress response. Together, interpersonal trust may modulate economic behaviors via stress hormone's action on social cognition-related brain regions.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Social environment and depression among pregnant women in urban areas of Pakistan: importance of social relations.

Aspects of the social environment, including social conditions (socio-economic status, household situations, chronic illnesses) and social relations (attitude and behaviors of relations) are major determinants of depression among women. This study evaluates the relative power of social relations and social conditions in predicting depression among pregnant women in Pakistan. In the qualitative phase of the study, social environmental determinants were identified through literature search, and experts' opinions from psychologists, psychiatrists, gynecologists, sociologists and researchers. Along with this, 79 in-depth interviews were conducted with pregnant women drawn from six hospitals (public and private) and two communities in Karachi, Pakistan. Identified determinants of depression were grouped into themes of social conditions and social relations and pregnancy-related concerns. In the study's quantitative phase, the relative power of the identified themes and categories, based on their scores for predicting depression (determined by the Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression Scale (CES-D scale)), was determined through multivariate linear regression. Social environmental determinants of pregnant women were described under the themes and categories of (1) social relations: involving husband, in-laws and children; (2) social conditions: involving the economy, illness, life events, household work, environmental circumstances and social problems; and (3) pregnancy-related concerns i.e. symptoms of pregnancy, changes during pregnancy, dependency and concern for unborn baby. Multivariate analysis found that among these themes, social relations and pregnancy-related concerns were significantly associated with total CES-D scores. Among the categories besides increasing age and less education, husband, in-laws, household work and pregnancy symptoms were significantly associated with total CES-D scores. The study highlights the importance of social relations compared to social conditions for determining depression in pregnant women.

Adult↗
PubMed1995

[Social medicine and social engineering].

In a rather complicated process starting at the middle of the 19th century and ending hundred years later social medicine was established as a science. Different theories on the social origin of the diseases and even different perspectives on the role of medicine in society did influence and shape the new discipline. The tradition from Rudolf Virchow and Alfred Grotjahn emphasizing the importance of the social causes of the diseases and the tradition from social hygiene with its stress on the hereditarian background of many diseases was mixed together in the early history of social medicine. Many of those trying to establish the new discipline thought that it could be used in order to prevent the spreading of diseases in society and also hinder the development of social maladjustments of different kinds, as for instance criminality and vagrancy. The political framework of social medicine was very much related to what in the Swedish debate later on was to be called social engineering. Both within the tradition of social liberalism and the social democratic party the ideals of a rational society governed by experts was very influential in the period between the two world wars. Some of the advocates for social medicine did even try to formulate a political programme with the new science as a base. The most influential of those was the forensic pspychiatrist Olof Kinberg (1873-1960). In a series of books and articles during the first half of the 19th century Kinberg developed a theory of a society governed by doctors educated within this new branch of science. He thought that almost every kind of social problem could be handled by these experts. Social maladjustment, criminality and even car accidents could be reduced to a minimum if only the new knowledge of the biological and medical causes of human behavior was allowed to influence the social and political organization of the society. Especially during the 1930s some politicians and also social scientists thought that politics in the future had to be some kind of applied science. In order to govern a complicated society it was necessary to use the knowledge developed within the sciences dealing with the relation between man and society. After the second world war this way of thinking was a little bit obsolete, but it did influence many of those working within the public sphere as administrators and experts.

History, 19th Century↗
PubMed2006

Social achievement goals: the nature and consequences of different orientations toward social competence.

The proposition that achievement goals are applicable to the social domain was examined in four studies. Study 1 established that different orientations toward developing or demonstrating social competence can be seen in individuals' responses to open-ended questions about their social goals and social competence. Studies 2 through 4 evaluated a new survey measure of social achievement goals. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses confirmed the hypothesized model of social achievement goals. Convergent and discriminant validity for the new measure of social achievement goals was established. In line with hypotheses, a social development goal was associated with adjustment and a social demonstration-avoid goal was associated with maladjustment both concurrently and longitudinally. A social development goal also was positively related to instructor ratings of students' social adjustment in small classroom settings. A social demonstration-approach goal was most often unrelated to adjustment. The importance of social achievement goals for a comprehensive understanding of social motivation and adjustment is discussed.

Achievement↗
PubMed2005

The relationship of job type to burnout in social workers at social welfare offices.

This study sought to determine the relationship of job type differences to burnout level, the details of job characteristics for each job type, and the association between burnout and job factors in 189 social workers at all social welfare offices in a prefecture in Japan. Among the three job types, 32.9% of social workers involved with public assistance, 29.0% of social workers involved with public assistance, the elderly, the disabled and single mothers, and 15.2% of social workers involved with the elderly, the disabled and single mothers were scored in the "high burnout" category (p<.05). Job type differed significantly with respect to the job characteristics of percentage of time spent on home visits per typical working day, job satisfaction, aversion to the job, and social support. The job type of public assistance work had a higher percentage of time spent on home visits per typical working day, aversion to the job, lower job satisfaction, and less social support than the job type involving no public assistance work. Multiple regression analyses showed the associations between job factors and burnout for each job type. Aversion to the job had a primary positive association with burnout for all social worker job types. Social support had a negative association with burnout in social workers whose clients included public assistance cases. The number of years in social work had a negative association with burnout, while percentage of time spent doing interviews per typical working day had a positive association with burnout in social workers who were involved with public assistance, the elderly, the disabled and single mothers. These results suggest that the job type of public assistance work may carry a higher risk of burnout than job types involving no public assistance work. To ameliorate this risk, it was thought to be important to improve aversion to the job as well as having a social support network for public assistance social workers.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Social anxiety in children: social skills deficit, or cognitive distortion?

BACKGROUND: Treatments for childhood social anxiety have traditionally employed social skills training, based on the assumption that effected children have social skills deficits. Recent conceptualisations of social anxiety in adults have questioned this assumption, and have suggested that socially anxious individuals merely believe that they have skill deficits. A recent study using children provided preliminary confirmation of this for younger populations, and also suggested that beliefs about appearing nervous are of particular importance. METHODS: Two groups of children, aged 10-11 years (analogue high social anxiety/low social anxiety), participated in a conversation with an unfamiliar adult. They then rated their performance in a number of domains, after which independent observers also rated their performances. RESULTS: Independent observers were unable to distinguish between the low and high social anxiety groups. However, high socially anxious children rated themselves as appearing significantly less skilled than their low socially anxious counterparts. Notably, high socially anxious children rated themselves particularly poorly in terms of how nervous they looked. CONCLUSIONS: Socially anxious children may not necessarily display social skill deficits. However, they may believe that they appear nervous during social encounters. Clinicians should consider using CBT techniques to address these concerns, rather than relying on social skill remediation.

Analysis of Variance↗