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PubMed1990

Adolescents' value images of smokers, ex-smokers, and nonsmokers.

Adolescents' value images of smokers, ex-smokers, and nonsmokers were investigated in a study of high school graduates. Overall, smokers were seen as being concerned with values related to personal enjoyment and autonomy. In contrast, nonsmokers were perceived as being more conventional, and more concerned with religious, interpersonal, and family values. Images of ex-smokers usually were intermediate, but resembled those of nonsmokers somewhat more than those of smokers. Interestingly, ex-smokers were perceived to place more importance on values relating to accomplishment and self-control than were either smokers or nonsmokers. In general, the value images were consistent among respondents who themselves were smokers, potential smokers, or nonsmokers. However, for a few values smokers and potential smokers had a more favorable image of smokers than did nonsmokers. Interestingly, males and females generally did not differ in their images of smokers, ex-smokers, and nonsmokers. Suggestions for prevention of adolescent smoking based on the value images are discussed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1997

Lifestyle and dietary differences in smokers and non-smokers from an Italian employee population.

In a sample of 200 subjects, representative of a population of 1936 civil servants, we tested differences in life style, dietary habits and distribution of risk factors for CHD between smokers and nonsmokers. The two groups (79 smokers) and (121 non-smokers) did not differ significantly by age or sex. The percentage of sedentary subjects, of hypercholesterolaemics and of hypertensives was found to be particularly high among smokers: 67%, 33% and 30% respectively (vs 59%, 27% and 19% in non-smokers). More smokers were obese (11% vs 5%) but mean BMI was the same in smokers/non-smokers but showed a higher fat mass; the association of CHD risk factors indicates only one significant correlation (P < 0.05) between obesity and hypertension. In male smokers, higher values of LDL and triglycerides and lower intake of energy, vitamins C and A are observed and these values are significantly different than those for non-smokers. In women HDL values are higher in non-smokers whereas, in female smokers, the food cholesterol intake is particularly high 271 +/- 295 mg. There are also correlations both for the anthropometric and clinical parameters and for energy and nutrients, indicating that the lifestyle of smokers is less healthy than that of non-smokers. Smokers cat vegetables and fruits less frequently and consume more alcohol than non-smokers, who prefer sweet foods.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

"Withdrawal symptoms" in adolescents: a comparison of former smokers and never-smokers.

Since the early 1980s, investigators have been reporting that adolescent smokers felt "dependent" on cigarettes and that adolescents trying to quit smoking experienced the same withdrawal symptoms observed in adult quitters, including restlessness, insomnia, increased appetite and weight gain, irritability or anger, depression, craving for cigarettes, and trouble concentrating. We hypothesized that most of these symptoms might be attributed to adolescence itself. To investigate this hypothesis, we examined the prevalence of these seven "adult" withdrawal symptoms in a population of adolescent former smokers and never-smokers. Participants were high school students in Houston, Texas, participating in a nested, group-randomized control group study designed to estimate the impact of a CD-ROM intervention for smoking prevention and cessation. We measured differences in symptoms frequency between never-smokers and former smokers, matched in a 2:1 ratio on sex and race/ethnicity, and differences in symptoms among former smokers as a function of time since final quit attempt and prior level of smoking. Only former heavy smokers have shown significantly higher prevalence of withdrawal symptoms compared with never-smokers. Of the seven symptoms assessed, only craving incrementally increased with the intensity of smoking. Overall the individual withdrawal symptoms did not effectively differentiate between 112 never-smokers and 34 former lighter smokers (persons who used to smoke less than "a few cigarettes on most days"). Withdrawal symptoms can reliably differentiate former heavy smokers from light smokers and never-smokers, among adolescents. Because most adolescents tend to be lighter smokers, future tobacco use and cessation studies should interpret adult withdrawal symptoms among adolescents with caution.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Prognostic value of coronary artery calcium screening in asymptomatic smokers and non-smokers.

AIMS: To determine the extent and prognostic significance of coronary artery calcium in asymptomatic smokers and non-smokers. Population data are available on the prognostic impact of smoking on atherosclerotic imaging measurements of the carotid and peripheral arteries. Limited data are available on the impact of cigarette smoking on the prognostic value of coronary calcium. METHODS AND RESULTS: A referred patient registry of 10,377 asymptomatic individuals (40% were current smokers) was followed for death from all-causes at 5 years. Univariable and multivariable Cox proportional hazard models were calculated to estimate time to all-cause mortality. Cumulative 5-year survival was 96.9 and 98.4% for smokers when compared with non-smokers (P < 0.0001). Using a stratified Cox proportional hazards survival analysis, survival for non-smokers ranged from 99.7 to 89.6% with calcium score of 0-10 and >1000 (P < 0.0001). In comparison, smokers had survival rates ranging from 99.5 to 81.4% for calcium score of 0-10 to >1000 (P < 0.0001). When further evaluating the effect of age on prognosis by coronary calcium, there was an additive relationship between age and calcium that was exacerbated with smoking, resulting in higher relative risk ratios for older smokers with coronary calcium (P < 0.0001). For smokers <50 years of age, a calcium score >1000 was associated with a relative risk ratio that was elevated 8.9-fold (P = 0.029). Thus, resulting in an expected reduction in life expectancy of 4.8 years for smokers <50 years of age with a calcium score >400 (P < 0.0001). CONCLUSION: The prognostic value of coronary artery calcium scoring was accurate in identifying a high-risk cohort of asymptomatic smokers and non-smokers. Young smokers with high-risk calcium scores have a four- to nine-fold increased risk of dying when compared with similarly aged non-smokers. When prospectively applied, evidence of a high-risk calcium score may be useful in educating patients as to their expected risk of dying over the next 5 years.

Adult↗
PubMed2007

UK smokers' and ex-smokers' reactions to cigarettes promising reduced risk.

AIMS: This study evaluated the impact of exposure to information about a novel cigarette claiming to reduce exposure to tobacco toxins ('potential reduced exposure product' cigarette or PREP-C) on smokers' and ex-smokers' perceptions of PREP-C, on quit interest among smokers and on interest in resuming smoking among ex-smokers. DESIGN AND PARTICIPANTS: A random digit-dialed telephone survey was conducted in the United Kingdom with 500 current smokers and 106 ex-smokers who had quit within the last 2 years. INTERVENTION: The interviewer described a novel cigarette that claimed to significantly reduce exposure to smoke toxins. MEASUREMENTS: Respondents' interest in purchasing the PREP-C, beliefs about its safety and risk reduction and smokers' quit interest, as measured by stage of change, before and after exposure to PREP-C information. FINDINGS: Among smokers, 76.5% were interested in purchasing PREP-C; interest did not vary by stage of change. Almost all smokers (90.6%) thought PREP-C was safer than regular cigarettes, with 5.4% indicating that the health risks were equivalent to not smoking at all. Exposure to PREP-C description did not change quit interest. Among ex-smokers, 5.6% believed PREP-C carried no health risk and 7.1% expressed purchase interest. CONCLUSIONS: Smokers and ex-smokers interpreted claims of reduced toxin exposure as reduced health risk and responded positively towards PREP-Cs. With the increasing introduction of PREP-Cs world-wide, evaluation of these products and their claims on quitting among smokers and on relapse among ex-smokers is a matter of public health urgency.

Adult↗
PubMed1975

Cigarette smoking in pregnancy: differences in peripheral circulation between smokers and non-smokers.

Ten smokers and ten non-smokers were followed serially from 12 to 16 weeks of pregnancy to six weeks postnatally. Measurements of calf and foot blood flow and toe and finger skin temperature were made at 4 to 6 week intervals in both groups, and the acute effects on the peripheral circulation of smoking one standard cigarette were also measured in the smokers at each stage of pregnancy. Comparison between the smokers and non-smokers showed that in the last trimester of pregnancy smokers had significantly higher foot blood flow and toe and finger temperature than non-smokers. These circulatory variables rose during the period of pregnancy studied in smokers but altered little in non-smokers. There was no significant difference in calf blood flow between the groups. Smoking a cigarette during pregnancy caused a fall in foot blood flow and in finger and toe skin temperature. Smoking increased calf blood flow between 12 and 25 weeks of pregnancy but decreased it in late pregnancy. Previous investigations of blood flow in pregnancy have not differentiated between smokers and non-smokers. It is suggested that the rise in foot blood flow and skin temperature believed to occur generally during pregnancy applies mainly to smokers. Some possible reason for differences in skin blood flow between smokers and non-smokers in pregnancy are discussed.

Adult↗
PubMed1995

Periodontal healing and periopathogenic microflora in smokers and non-smokers.

The aim of the present study was to monitor the clinical and microbiological effects of non-surgical therapy in smokers and non-smokers. The subject material included 32 patients (age range 32-61 years), 11 men and 21 women with moderate to severe periodontitis. 17 patients were smokers ( > or = 15 cigarettes/day) and 15 non-smokers. All patients were subjected to non-surgical periodontal therapy performed by a dental hygienist. Periodontal variables (plaque index, gingival index and probing depth) were registered and bacterial samples were collected before and 2 months after treatment. The treatment resulted in significant reductions towards very low plaque and gingival indices in smokers and non-smokers alike (p < 0.05). Although probing depth was reduced in both smokers and non-smokers, the probing pocket depth reduction was significantly smaller in smokers than non-smokers (p < 0.05). Microbiologically, the same therapeutical efficacy was attained in both smoking groups, indicating an almost total eradication of Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans and Porphyromonas gingivalis. Concerning Prevotella intermedia, out of 14 smokers and 10 non-smokers positive at baseline, 9 and 5, respectively, remained positive after treatment. The results suggest a less favourable clinical outcome of non-surgical therapy in smokers than non-smokers in spite of the fact that the therapy was equally effective with regard to reducing the alleged periopathogens A. actinomycetemcomitans, P. gingivalis and P. intermedia.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Healing response of gingival recession defects following guided tissue regeneration procedures in smokers and non-smokers.

This retrospective study evaluated healing response in gingival recession defects following guided tissue regeneration (GTR) in smokers. 22 systemically healthy patients who had been treated for deep (> or = 4 mm), buccal, Miller's class I or II gingival recession defects with ePTFE membranes were included. Patients were regarded as smokers if they smoked more than 10 cigarettes/day at the time of surgical procedure. Occasional and former smokers were excluded. 9 patients (6 male, mean age 29 years) were smokers, while 13 patients (4 male, mean age 35 years) were non-smokers. Clinical parameters, recorded presurgery and at 6 months postsurgery, included defect-specific plaque (DP1) and bleeding on probing (BoP) scores, recession depth (RD), probing depth (PD), clinical attachment level (CAL), and keratinized tissue width (KG). Extent of membrane exposure (ME) and newly formed tissue (NFT) gain were assessed at membrane removal. Statistical analysis revealed no significant differences between smokers and non-smokers in demographic and presurgery defect characteristics. DP1 and BoP scores were similar presurgery and remained almost unchanged throughout the observation interval in both groups. ME was significantly greater in smokers (2.6 +/- 1.4 mm) than in non-smokers (1.3 +/- 0.6 mm). NFT gain was 2.8 +/- 1.0 mm in smokers and 3.6 +/- 1.4 mm in non-smokers, the difference being not statistically significant. Smokers showed significantly less RD reduction and root coverage (2.5 +/- 1.2 mm and 57%, respectively) compared to non-smokers (3.6 +/- 1.1 mm and 78%, respectively). In conclusion, the results indicate that treatment outcome following GTR in gingival recession defects is impaired in cigarette smokers.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Abstention from smoking extends life and compresses morbidity: a population based study of health expectancy among smokers and never smokers in Denmark.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate health expectancy--that is, the average lifetime in good health--among never smokers, ex-smokers, and smokers in Denmark. DESIGN: A method suggested by Peto and colleagues in 1992 for estimating smoking attributable mortality rates was used to construct a life table for never smokers. This life table and relative risks for death for ex-smokers and smokers versus never smokers were used to estimate life tables for ex-smokers and smokers. Life tables and prevalence rates of health status were combined and health expectancy was calculated by Sullivan's method. SETTING: The Danish adult population. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The expected lifetime in self rated good health or without longstanding illness for never smokers and smokers. RESULTS: The expected lifetime of a 20 year old man who will never begin to smoke is 56.7 years, 48.7 (95% confidence interval (CI), 46.8 to 50.7) years of which are expected to be in self rated good health. The corresponding figures for a man who smokes heavily are 49.5 years, 36.5 (95% CI 35.0 to 38.1 ) years of which are in self rated good health. A 20 year old woman who will never begin to smoke can expect to live a further 60.9 years, with 46.4 (95% CI 44.9 to 47.8) years in self rated good health; if she is a lifelong heavy smoker, her expected lifetime is reduced to 53.8 years, 33.8 (95% CI 31.7 to 35.9) years of which are in self rated good health. Health expectancy based on long standing illness is reduced for smokers when compared with never smokers. CONCLUSIONS: Smoking reduces the expected lifetime in good health and increases the expected lifetime in poor health.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Effect of cigarette smoke on the permeability and IL-1beta and sICAM-1 release from cultured human bronchial epithelial cells of never-smokers, smokers, and patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

Although cigarette smoking is of paramount importance in the development of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), only a small proportion of smokers develop the disease. We tested the hypothesis that the response of the bronchial epithelium to cigarette smoke (CS) differs in patients with COPD. Such a difference might explain in part why only some cigarette smokers develop the disease. We established primary explant cultures of human bronchial epithelial cells (HBEC) from biopsy material obtained from never-smokers who had normal pulmonary function, smokers with normal pulmonary function, and smokers with COPD, and exposed these for 20 min to CS or air. Measurements were subsequently made over a period of 24 h of transepithelial permeability and release of interleukin (IL)-1beta and soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (sICAM-1). In addition, intracellular reduced glutathione (GSH) levels were measured after 24 h incubation. Exposure to CS increased the permeability of these cultures in all study groups, but the most marked effect was observed in cultures from patients with COPD (mean increase, 85.5%). The smallest CS-induced increase in the permeability was observed in HBEC cultured from smokers with normal pulmonary function (mean, 25.0%), and this was significantly lower than that of HBEC from never-smokers (mean, 53.4%) (P<0.001). Compared with exposure to air, exposure to CS led to a significantly increased release of these mediators from cultures of the never-smoker group (mean 250.0% increase in IL-1beta and mean 175.3% increase in sICAM-1 24 h after exposure) and COPD group (mean 383.3% increase in IL-1beta and mean 97.4% increase in sICAM-1 24 h after exposure). In contrast, CS exposure did not influence significantly the release of either mediator from the cells of smokers with normal pulmonary function. Levels of intracellular GSH were significantly higher in cultures of HBEC derived from smokers, both those with normal pulmonary function and those with COPD, compared with cultures from healthy never-smokers. Exposure to CS significantly decreased the concentration of intracellular GSH in all cultures. However, the fall in intracellular GSH was significantly greater in cells from patients with COPD (mean 72.9% decrease) than in cells from never-smokers (mean 61.4% decrease; P = 0.048) or smokers with normal pulmonary function (mean 43.9% decrease; P = 0.02). These results suggest that whereas smokers with or without COPD demonstrate increased levels of GSH within bronchial epithelial cell cultures, those with COPD have a greater susceptibility to the effects of CS in reducing GSH levels and causing increased permeability and release of proinflammatory mediators such as IL-1beta and sICAM-1.

Bronchi↗
PubMed1992

Detection of reversible platelet aggregates in the blood of smokers and ex-smokers with peripheral vascular disease.

OBJECTIVE: To demonstrate that smoking increases platelet aggregation in vivo, that smoking cessation reverses platelet aggregation and that this explains, in part, why smoking perpetuates the development of peripheral vascular disease. DESIGN: Prospective case-control study involving three groups of patients: smokers with peripheral vascular disease, ex-smokers with peripheral vascular disease and smokers with peripheral vascular disease who quit smoking during the study. SETTING/PARTICIPANTS: Fourteen smokers and seven ex-smokers, new patients with confirmed peripheral vascular disease, attending the vascular clinic at Fremantle Hospital between February and November, 1988. INTERVENTIONS: Blood samples taken weekly from all subjects for five weeks. Week 1 was taken as the baseline before smoking cessation in the six smokers who were assigned to stop smoking during the study. MAIN OUTCOME CRITERIA: Platelet aggregate ratio, an indicator of in-vivo platelet aggregability where an increase in platelet aggregate ratio suggests a decrease in platelet function. RESULTS: Only three of six smokers stopped smoking for the duration of the study. Median platelet aggregate ratios were: smokers = 0.85 (range, 0.79-0.92) v. non-smokers = 0.93 (range, 0.91-1.00). The difference was statistically significant P less than 0.0002. The difference in platelet aggregate ratios between smokers and quitters was not statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrated an increase in platelet aggregability in smokers compared to ex-smokers but there was no clear evidence that platelet function was fully reversed after only four weeks cessation of smoking. The data suggested that platelet function of the ex-smokers had fully reversed to normal over a longer period. This could explain the decreased incidence of complications of peripheral vascular disease in ex-smokers. The small number of patients able to quit smoking impeded this study.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Comparison of treatment response patterns following scaling and root planing in smokers and non-smokers with untreated adult periodontitis.

The present study was conducted to compare short-term treatment response patterns following scaling and root planing in smoking and non-smoking Chinese patients with untreated adult periodontitis. Thirteen smokers and twelve periodontally matched non-smokers with untreated advanced adult periodontitis were evaluated prior to and at one, three, and six months after scaling and root planing. Probing depths (PD), probing attachment level (PAL) and gingival height (GH) were assessed at clinically healthy, gingivitis and periodontitis sites. PD and PAL were measured using electronic Florida pocket and disk probes, respectively. Non-smokers consistently showed significant gingival shrinkage in gingivitis sites, whereas smokers had no significant change in GH. In periodontitis sites, both groups exhibited significant decreases in PD (p < 0.001) at one month, and a greater reduction of PD was found in non-smokers than in smokers (p < 0.05), the difference being most notable at three months (2.4 +/- 0.2 mm vs. 1.1 +/- 0.3 mm, p < 0.001). Non-smokers showed a consistent gain of attachment in periodontitis sites from 0.5 +/- 0.2 mm at one month (p < 0.05) to 1.2 +/- 0.3 mm at six months (p < 0.001), whereas no significant gain of attachment was found in smokers until six months (0.5 +/- 0.2 mm; p < 0.05). Overall, the reduction of PD positively correlated with baseline PD in both smokers (p < 0.01) and non-smokers (p < 0.001), but when only the sites with an initial PD > or = 5 mm were considered, such a significant correlation was found only in non-smokers (p < 0.05). A positive correlation was also found between the change in PAL and baseline PD solely in non-smokers (p < 0.05). This study indicates that smokers have different treatment response patterns and healing dynamics compared to non-smokers following scaling and root planing, suggesting that for smoking patients a more intensive treatment regimen is needed for a better treatment outcome and reduced risk for further periodontal disease progression.

Adult↗
PubMed1990

Comparative studies of the mutagenicity of urine from smokers and non-smokers on a controlled non-mutagenic diet.

Measuring the mutagenicity of urine is widely viewed as a means of evaluating human exposure to potentially genotoxic materials. Diet and cigarette smoking have both been reported to affect the mutagenicity of human urine, but the relationship between smoking status and the expression of diet-related urinary mutagenicity is unknown. It has been reported that some promutagens are more active in in vitro assays when tested in the presence of urine from smokers than when tested in the presence of urine from non-smokers. We aimed to determine whether the differences in urinary mutagenicity between smokers and non-smokers result from increased urinary mutagenicity from dietary heterocyclic amine mutagens in smokers compared with non-smokers. Groups of smokers and non-smokers (6-12) were given identical diets, previously shown to be low in heterocyclic amines and very low in mutagenicity. The diet consisted exclusively of raw food and of food cooked in boiling water. After a 2-day dietary stabilization period, 24-hour urine samples were collected for three consecutive days. The regimen was repeated in the following week. For comparison, both groups were also placed on a "western" diet, consisting of a variety of foods prepared by several cooking methods, designed to reflect what a typical United States family might consume. Urine was concentrated using XAD-2 resin and then assayed for mutagenic activity in the Ames test. The urine of smokers was significantly more mutagenic than that of non-smokers when on both the raw/boiled and the "western" diets. These results indicate that the increased urinary mutagenicity observed in smokers compared with non-smokers is not due to enhanced mutagenicity of diet-related heterocyclic amine mutagens in the urine of smokers.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Who calls QUIT? The characteristics of smokers seeking advice via a telephone helpline compared with smokers attending a clinic and those in the general population.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the characteristics of callers to a telephone helpline with those of smokers seeking assistance through a clinic and smokers in a general population sample. STUDY DESIGN: Data were gathered from callers to the Quitline in May and June 2000. Screening data were used for smokers attending the South London & Maudsley NHS Smokers' Clinic from May 2000 to April 2001. The results of the 2000/2001 General Household Survey (GHS) were used to estimate the characteristics of smokers in the general population. METHODS: Callers to the Quitline (n=1162) surveyed during the summer of 2000, smokers attending the Maudsley Hospital Smokers' Clinic between May 2000 and April 2001 (n=1127), and smokers surveyed in the GHS between April 2000 and March 2001 (n=14,089) were compared on demographic characteristics, tobacco dependence and readiness to quit. RESULTS: Women and older smokers are more likely to seek help, but the Quitline attracts more calls from younger smokers. The age profile of helpline callers corresponds more closely to that of the general population of smokers than does the age profile of clinic attenders. Quitline callers are more dependent than the general population of smokers; clinic attenders are even more dependent. In comparison with the general population, the majority of Quitline callers have plans to quit smoking soon or have already stopped smoking. CONCLUSIONS: Telephone helplines reach a more representative sample of smokers in various states of readiness to quit, and provide a service for a population not reached by clinics.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

[Attitude toward smoking among smoking and non-smoking officials of the Federal University of Sao Paulo, Brazil: comparative analysis of smokers and non-smokers].

OBJECTIVE: To study the attitudes toward smoking of employees of the Federal University of Sao Paulo as a step toward implanting a consensualized anti-smoking program for the institution. METHOD: We designed and distributed anonymous, self-completed questionnaires with 51 multiple-choice questions, which were returned by 2,613 (48.6%) employees, professors, medical residents, nurses and students. RESULTS: Four hundred thirty-eight (16.8% of the population) of the respondents were smokers and 456 (17.5%) were non-smokers. For 84% smoking started between the ages of 11 and 20 years. Most smokers were between 31 and 40 years of age, and the prevalence of ex-smokers was highest in respondents over the age of 60. Seventy-eight percent of the smokers smoked at work. Both smokers and non-smokers reported some type of discomfort caused by cigarette smoke, mainly smell in clothes and hair (62.7% of smokers versus 59% of non-smokers, NS). The proportion who opted for a totally smoke-free environment was 37.5% among non-smokers and 10% among smokers (p < 0.05). Restrictions on smoking in specific places, on the other hand, met with the approval of 82.8% of smokers and 59% of non-smokers (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: We believe that surveys such as this one should be carried out at all institutions, particularly in health care centers, in order to assure that smoking restriction policies are successful and receive the support of most employees, whether they smoke or not. Our data suggest the advisability of creating restricted-smoking zones in the early phase of an institutional anti-smoking campaign designed to lead to a totally smoke-free workplace environment.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Comparison of the validity of periodontal probing measurements in smokers and non-smokers.

AIM: To determine whether the reduced inflammation and bleeding and increased fibrosis reported in tobacco smokers affect the validity of clinical probing measurements by altering probe tip penetration. METHOD: A constant force probe was used to measure probing depths and sound bone levels at six sites on 64 molar teeth (384 sites) in 20 smoking and 20 non-smoking patients from grooves made with a bur at the gingival margin prior to extraction. Connective tissue attachment levels were measured from the grooves with a dissecting microscope following extraction. Data were analysed using robust regression with sites clustered within subjects. RESULTS: Sites in smokers showed more calculus but less bleeding than sites in non-smokers (p<0.05). The mean clinical probing depth was not significantly different (smokers: 5.54 mm, confidence intervals=4.81 to 6.28; non-smokers: 6.05 mm, ci=5.38 to 6.72). The corresponding post-extraction pocket depth measurements (smokers: 4.95 mm, ci=4.30 to 5.61; non-smokers: 5.23 mm, ci=4.49 to 5.96) were less than clinical probing depth in sites from both smokers and non-smokers (p<0.01). However, the proportional difference was less in smokers (p<0.05), particularly in deeper pockets, indicating that clinical probe tip penetration of tissue was greater in non-smokers. Regression analysis indicated that the presence of calculus and bleeding also influenced the difference in clinical probe penetration (p<0.05). CONCLUSION: Clinical probing depth at molar sites exaggerates pocket depth, but the probe tip may be closer to the actual attachment level in smokers due to less penetration of tissue. This may be partly explained by the reduced inflammation and width of supra-bony connective tissue in smokers. These findings have clinical relevance to the successful management of periodontal patients who smoke.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Health education pamphlets about smoking--their benefit to smokers and non-smokers.

The aim of this present study was to compare the use by smokers and non-smokers of pamphlets about smoking as delivered from different settings. The study was a nation-wide cross-sectional survey of 1924 randomly selected, Danish men and women, aged 14-77 y, who had answered a mailed questionnaire in 1994. Of these 71% also participated in a telephone interview enquiring about the use of health education material, smoking status and socio-demographic variables, 39% of readers of household-delivered anti-smoking pamphlets reported having gained information from them and 22% reported having made changes in their own smoking behaviour such as avoiding smoking in the presence of non-smokers. In general practice settings, these percentages were higher among smokers. Smokers who were thinking of stopping smoking in the near future were in addition more likely to take and to read smoking related health education materials from other places. Non-smokers received (3 49%) and read pamphlets about smoking as frequently as did smokers who did not intend to quit. In conclusion, written health education material was well received by readers, but, when distributed in a more open setting it needs to be targeted towards smokers who are considering stopping smoking. In general practice, smokers not thinking of stopping were open to health education, and pamphlets used in this setting should also target this group. Non-smokers contribute indirectly to smokers quitting by providing support to smokers and pamphlets for non-smokers need to be more targeted towards this social role.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Different inflammatory cell pattern and macrophage phenotype in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients, smokers and non-smokers.

Smokers exhibit airway inflammation and increased number of alveolar macrophages (AM), but not all develop chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). We hypothesized that AMs in COPD patients have an altered functional capacity mirrored in a different phenotype. Sixteen steroid-naive COPD patients [forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV(1)) < 70% of predicted] underwent bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL). Age- and smoking-matched non-obstructive smokers (n = 10) and healthy non-smokers (n = 9) served as controls. Nine COPD patients had a BAL cell yield sufficient for flow cytometry analysis, where expression of AM cell surface markers reflecting various functions was determined. AMs from COPD patients showed decreased expression of CD86 (co-stimulation) and CD11a (adhesion) compared to smokers' AMs (P < 0.05). Furthermore, smokers' AMs showed lower (P < 0.05) expression of CD11a compared to non-smokers. AM expression of CD11c was higher in the COPD and smokers groups compared to non-smokers (P < 0.05). The expression of CD54 (adhesion) was lower in smokers' AMs compared to non-smokers (P < 0.05), whereas CD16 was lower (P < 0.05) in COPD patients compared to non-smokers. The AM expression of CD11b, CD14, CD58, CD71, CD80 and human leucocyte antigen (HLA) Class II did not differ between the three groups. The AM phenotype is altered in COPD and further research may develop disease markers. The lower AM expression of CD86 and CD11a in COPD implies a reduced antigen-presenting function. Some alterations were found in smokers compared to non-smokers, thus indicating that changes in AM phenotype may be associated with smoking per se. The functional relevance of our findings remains to be elucidated.

Analysis of Variance↗