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PubMed2003

Mechanism for defoaming by oils and calcium soap in aqueous systems.

The effect of oils, hardness, and calcium soap on foam stability of aqueous solutions of commercial surfactants was investigated. For conditions where negligible calcium soap was formed, stability of foams made with 0.1 wt% solutions of a seven-EO alcohol ethoxylate containing dispersed drops of n-hexadecane, triolein, or mixtures of these oils with small amounts of oleic acid could be understood in terms of entry, spreading, and bridging coefficients, i.e., ESB analysis. However, foams made from solutions containing 0.01 wt% of three-EO alcohol ethoxysulfate sodium salt and the same dispersed oils were frequently more stable than expected based on ESB analysis, reflecting that repulsion due to overlap of electrical double layers in the asymmetric oil-water-air film made oil entry into the air-water interface more difficult than the theory predicts. When calcium soap was formed in situ by the reaction of fatty acids in the oil with calcium, solid soap particles were observed at the surfaces of the oil drops. The combination of oil and calcium soap produced a synergistic effect facilitating the well-known bridging instability of foam films or Plateau borders and producing a substantial defoaming effect. A possible mechanism of instability involving increases in disjoining pressure at locations where small soap particles approach the air-water interface is discussed. For both surfactants with the triolein-oleic acid mixtures, calculated entry and bridging coefficients for conditions when calcium soap formed were positive shortly after foam generation but negative at equilibrium. These results are consistent with the experimental observation that most defoaming action occurred shortly after foam generation rather than at later times.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1991

Effect of feeding calcium soaps of fatty acids on production and reproductive responses in high producing lactating cows.

The effect of feeding Ca soaps of fatty acids for 120 d from parturition on productive and reproductive performance of dairy cows was examined, together with changes in blood lipids and progesterone. Cows fed Ca soaps received 1.5 Mcal NE1 d more than controls fed isonitrogenous and equi-forage rations. Cows fed Ca soaps produced more milk and fat for 60 d, and more FCM for 90 d after calving. In these cows, BW decreased more, and reached a minimum later than controls. Plasma free fatty acids were higher until 50 d postpartum, when phospholipid, and later triglyceride, concentrations were elevated. Cows fed soaps commenced ovarian cyclicity later than controls as shown by frequency distribution of the time required to reach cyclic plasma progesterone concentrations, 2 ng/ml progesterone in plasma, or behavioral estrus. However, once cyclicity commenced, more fat-fed cows had normal cycle length (18 to 26 d) than controls. Progesterone concentrations were higher in Ca soap-fed cows in the luteal phase before AI and were higher 9 and 24 d after AI in percent that conceived. Conception rate was higher in cows fed Ca soaps for 2nd to 4th AI, a higher proportion of cows were pregnant at 150 d after calving and number of open days was reduced. Feeding Ca soaps of fatty acids resulted in higher production at the expense of body reserves close to calving, and subsequently enhanced lipid concentrations in plasma. Higher progesterone production was accompanied by increased pregnancy rate and reduced open days.

Animal Feed↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Susceptibility of immature Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae) to desiccants and an insecticidal soap.

Efficacy of commercially available formulations of desiccants (Drione, Dri-die, diatomaceous earth) and insecticidal soap (Safer's) comprised of active ingredients were evaluated against Ixodes scapularis Say immatures in petri dish and grass turf bioassays. In petri dish bioassays at label rate, all products, except diatomaceous earth, provided a high degree of control by 24 and 48 h (71-100% mortality). Mortality of larvae exceeded 94% by 4 h after treatment with Drione (10 x label rate held at 85% RH), Dri-die (label rate held at both 85% and 98% RH) and Safer's insecticidal soap (10 x label rate held at 98% RH). Nymphal mortality was highest by 4 h after treatment with Safer's insecticidal soap (up to 96%). Larvae were more susceptible than nymphs to desiccants, however, nymphs were more susceptible than larvae to Safer's insecticidal soap. Immature ticks treated with Safer's insecticidal soap exhibited sublethal effects with significantly decreased attachment to hosts and no engorgement. In grass turf bioassays, mortality of nymphs was equivalent (85-95%) between treatments of chlorpyrifos (0.6 kg [AI]/ha, Safer's insecticidal soap, and Drione. In the same bioassays, nymphal mortality was moderate after treatment with Dri-die (23-29%) and low following application with diatomaceous earth (16%) and for untreated controls (6%).

Animals↗
PubMed1991

Prevention of dryness and eczema of the hands of hospital staff by emulsion cleansing instead of washing with soap.

The acceptability of two handwashing/cleansing methods, cleansing with emulsion or washing with liquid soap and water, were compared in a randomized, prospective long-term study. Thirty-eight members of hospital staff who had a history of hand skin dryness or eczema and a need for frequent handwashing used either liquid soap or emulsion for handwashing or cleansing. The clinical assessment of skin condition was done blindly by the same dermatologist at the onset of the study, and after 2 and 4 months with a predetermined scoring system. The median skin dryness index of persons in the liquid soap group increased significantly from an initial 1.4 to 3.6 during the 4-month winter study period (P less than 0.001), while the corresponding figure in the emulsion group decreased during the same time from 1.9 to 1.1 (P = 0.053). The difference in dryness between the groups was significant after 2 months (P = 0.04) and after 4 months (P less than 0.001). After 4 months, six people in the emulsion group had no dryness of the hands compared to only one in the liquid soap group. Similar trends were noticed in the occurrence of eczema. The median eczema index decreased significantly in the emulsion group from 0.4 to 0.1 during the study. In the liquid soap group, the increase in the median eczema index was from 0.4 to 0.7 (difference not significant). On an individual level, the eczema became worse in only one subject in the emulsion group, but in seven in the liquid soap group.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Adult↗
PubMed1988

Washing with contaminated bar soap is unlikely to transfer bacteria.

Recent reports of the isolation of microorganisms from used soap bars have raised the concern that bacteria may be transferred from contaminated soap bars during handwashing. Since only one study addressing this question has been published, we developed an additional procedure to test this concern. In our new method prewashed and softened commercial deodorant soap bars (0.8% triclocarban) not active against Gram-negative bacteria were inoculated with Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa to give mean total survival levels of 4.4 X 10(5) c.f.u. per bar which was 70-fold higher than those reported on used soap bars. Sixteen panelists were instructed to wash with the inoculated bars using their normal handwashing procedure. After washing, none of the 16 panelists had detectable levels of either test bacterium on their hands. Thus, the results obtained using our new method were in complete agreement with those obtained with the previously published method even though the two methods differ in a number of procedural aspects. These findings, along with other published reports, show that little hazard exists in routine handwashing with previously used soap bars and support the frequent use of soap and water for handwashing to prevent the spread of disease.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Effect of hand cleansing with antimicrobial soap or alcohol-based gel on microbial colonization of artificial fingernails worn by health care workers.

This study was undertaken to determine differences in microflora on the nails of health care workers (HCWs) wearing artificial nails compared with control HCWs with native nails and to assess the effect on these microflora of hand cleansing with antimicrobial soap or alcohol-based gel. Cultures were obtained from 21 HCWs wearing artificial nails and 20 control HCWs before and after using antimicrobial soap or alcohol-based gel. Before cleansing with soap, 86% of HCWs with artificial nails had a pathogen (gram-negative bacilli, Staphylococcus aureus, or yeasts) isolated, compared with 35% of controls (P=.003); a similar difference was noted before hand cleansing with gel (68% vs. 28%; P=.03). Significantly more HCWs with artificial nails than controls had pathogens remaining after hand cleansing with soap or gel. Of HCWs with artificial nails, only 11% cleared pathogens with soap compared with 38% with gel. Of control HCWs, only 14% cleared with soap compared with 80% with gel. Artificial acrylic fingernails could contribute to the transmission of pathogens, and their use by HCWs should be discouraged.

Alcohols↗
PubMed2000

Skin irritation and dryness associated with two hand-hygiene regimens: soap-and-water hand washing versus hand antisepsis with an alcoholic hand gel.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the frequency of skin irritation and dryness associated with using an alcoholic-hand-gel regimen for hand antisepsis versus using soap and water for hand washing. DESIGN: Prospective randomized trial with crossover design. Irritation and dryness of nurses' hands were evaluated by self-assessment and by visual assessment by a study nurse. Epidermal water content of the dorsal surface of nurses' hands was estimated by measuring electrical capacitance of the skin. SETTING: Miriam Hospital, a 200-bed university-affiliated teaching hospital. PARTICIPANTS: Thirty-two nurses working on three hospital wards participated in the trial, which lasted 6 weeks. RESULTS: Self-assessment scores of skin irritation and dryness decreased slightly during the 2 weeks when nurses used the alcoholic-hand-gel regimen (mean baseline score, 2.72; mean final score, 2.0; P=.08) but increased substantially during the 2 weeks when nurses used soap and water (mean baseline score, 2.0; mean final score, 4.8; P<.0001). Visual assessment scores by the study nurse of skin irritation and dryness did not change significantly when the alcoholic-hand-gel regimen was used (mean baseline and final scores were both 0.55), but scores increased substantially when nurses used soap and water (baseline score, 0.59; mean final score, 1.21; P=.05). Epidermal water content of the dorsal surface of nurses' hands changed little when the alcoholic-hand-gel regimen was used (mean+/-standard deviation baseline electrical capacitance reading, 24.8+/-6.8; mean final reading, 25.7+/-7.3), but decreased significantly (skin became dryer) with soap-and-water hand washing (mean baseline, 25.9+/-7.5; mean final reading, 20.5+/-5.4; P=.0003). CONCLUSIONS: Hand antisepsis with an alcoholic-hand-gel regimen was well tolerated and did not result in skin irritation and dryness of nurses' hands. In contrast, skin irritation and dryness increased significantly when nurses washed their hands with the unmedicated soap product available in the hospital. Newer alcoholic hand gels that are tolerated better than soap may be more acceptable to staff and may lead to improved hand-hygiene practices.

Antisepsis↗
PubMed1991

Failure of bland soap handwash to prevent hand transfer of patient bacteria to urethral catheters.

OBJECTIVE: The study was designed to compare the efficacies of bland soap handwash and isopropyl alcohol hand rinse in preventing transfer of aerobic gram-negative bacilli to urinary catheters via transient hand colonization acquired from direct patient contact. Glove juice recovery of gram-negative bacteria was considered transient colonization; catheter recovery was considered transfer colonization. DESIGN: The contact source for gram-negative bacteria was a single "high burden" groin skin carrier (greater than or equal to 10(4)/ml cup scrub fluid). Using a two-period cross-over design, 6 healthcare workers had 2 15-second contacts for each hand followed by either soap handwash or alcohol hand rinse (12 experiments with each treatment). Between 4 to 5 minutes after contact, each hand manipulated a catheter; the catheter was then cultured and the hand was glove juice tested. RESULTS: Soap handwash failed to prevent gram-negative bacteria transfer to the catheter in 11 of 12 (92%) experiments; alcohol hand rinse in 2 of 12 (17%) (p less than .001). Soap handwash failed to prevent transient colonization in 12 of 12 (100%) experiments; alcohol in 5 of 12 (42%) (risk ratio 2.4, 95% confidence interval 1.2-4.7). Single gram-negative bacteria species carried at source levels greater than or equal to 5.5 x 10(3)/ml (heavy contamination) established transient colonization in 23 of 30 (77%) exposures following soap handwash; single gram-negative bacteria species carried at levels less than or equal to 3.5 x 10(3)/ml established colonization in 1 of 22 (5%) similar exposures (p less than .001). CONCLUSIONS: Bland soap handwash was generally ineffective in preventing hand transfer of gram-negative bacteria to catheters following brief contact with a heavy-contamination patient source; alcohol hand rinse was generally effective.

Adult↗
PubMed1994

Effectiveness of liquid soap vs. chlorhexidine gluconate for the removal of Clostridium difficile from bare hands and gloved hands.

OBJECTIVE: To compare liquid soap versus 4% chlorhexidine gluconate in 4% alcohol for the decontamination of bare or gloved hands inoculated with an epidemic strain of Clostridium difficile. DESIGN: C difficile (6.7 log10 colony-forming units [CFU], 47% spores), was seeded onto bare or latex gloved hands of ten volunteers and allowed to dry. Half the volunteers initially washed with soap and half with chlorhexidine, followed by the other agent 1 week later. Cultures were done with Rodac plates at three sites on the hand: finger/thumbtips, the palmar surfaces of the fingers, and the palm. Statistical comparison was by paired Student's t test. RESULTS: On bare hands, soap and chlorhexidine did not differ in residual bacterial counts on the finger/thumbtips (log10 CFU, 2.0 and 2.1, P = NS) and fingers (log10 CFU, 2.4 and 2.5, P = NS). Counts were too high on bare palms to quantitate. On gloved hands, soap was more effective than chlorhexidine on fingers (log10 CFU 1.3 and 1.7, P < .01) and palms (log10 CFU 1.5 and 2.0, P < .01), but not finger/thumbtips (log10 CFU 1.6 with each, P = NS). Residual C difficile counts were lower on gloved hands than bare hands (P < 0.01 to < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: The two agents did not differ significantly in residual counts of C difficile on bare hands, but on gloved hands residual counts were lower following soap wash than following chlorhexidine wash. These observations support the use of either soap or chlorhexidine as a handwash for removal of C difficile, but efficacy in the prevention of C difficile transmission must be determined by prospective clinical trials.

Aerosols↗
PubMed1997

Serratia marcescens outbreak associated with extrinsic contamination of 1% chlorxylenol soap.

OBJECTIVES: To determine risk factors for Serratia marcescens infection or colonization, and to identify the source of the pathogen and factors facilitating its persistence in a neonatal intensive-care unit (NICU) during an outbreak. DESIGN: Retrospective case-control study; review of NICU infection control policies, soap use, and handwashing practices among healthcare workers (HCWs); and selected environmental cultures. SETTING: A university-affiliated tertiary-care hospital NICU. PATIENTS: All NICU infants with at least one positive culture for S marcescens during August 1994 to October 1995. Infants who did not develop S marcescens infection or colonization were selected randomly as controls. RESULTS: Thirty-two patients met the case definition. On multivariate analysis, independent risk factors for S marcescens infection or colonization were having very low birth weight (< 1,500 g), a patent ductus arteriosus, a mother with chorioamnionitis, or exposure to a single HCW. During January to July 1995, NICU HCWs carried their own bottles of 1% chlorxylenol soap, which often were left standing inverted in the NICU sink and work areas. Cultures of 16 (31%) of 52 samples of soap and 1 (8%) of 13 sinks yielded S marcescens. The 16 samples of soap all came from opened 4-oz bottles carried by HCWs. DNA banding patterns of case infant, HCW soap bottle, and sink isolates were identical. CONCLUSIONS: Extrinsically contaminated soap contributed to an outbreak of S marcescens infection. Very-low-birth-weight infants with multiple invasive procedures and exposures to certain HCWs were at greatest risk of S marcescens infection or colonization.

Anti-Infective Agents, Local↗
PubMed1990

Dissociation of calcium soaps of long-chain fatty acids in rumen fluid.

Dissociation of 5% solutions of calcium soaps of soya, tallow, stearic acid, and palm fatty acid distillate was studied by titration with 1 N HCl. Release of calcium ions was directly correlated with decrease in pH value. Estimated pKa values were 5.6, 4.6, 4.5, and 4.5 for calcium soaps of soya, palm fatty acid distillate, tallow, and stearic acid, respectively. Dissociation of 5% solutions in acetate buffer at pH values of 5.0, 5.5, 6.0, and 6.5 was measured in terms of release of soluble calcium. Dissociation was maximum at pH 5.0, minimum at pH 6.5, and dependent on unsaturation of fatty acids in the soaps. Soluble calcium in the acetate-buffered rumen fluid was higher than predicted from pKa of calcium soaps, due to formation of soluble calcium acetate; however, the relative patterns were similar to their pKa values. Unsaturated soaps are less satisfactory for maintaining normal rumen function, because dissociation is relatively higher. Calcium soaps of palm fatty acid distillate were satisfactorily stable to pH 5.5.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Effect of dietary calcium soaps on milk yield, body weight, reproductive hormones, and fertility in first parity and older cows.

The effects were determined of dietary Ca soaps of fatty acids fed to cows to 120 DIM on milk yield, BW, peripheral concentrations of reproductive hormones, and fertility in primiparous and multiparous cows. Milk yield was increased in primiparous and multiparous cows fed Ca soaps, and milk fat and protein yields were enhanced. Body weight losses were greater for all cows fed Ca soaps, and this trend was greater and longer lasting in primiparous cows than in multiparous cows. Plasma triglyceride concentrations were elevated in multiparous cows, but FFA tended to be higher in primiparous cows fed Ca soaps. Conception rate at first AI was lower for primiparous cows fed Ca soaps (33%) than for controls (74%), but differences were not significant for later AI or between multiparous groups. No differences were apparent for plasma progesterone or estradiol in the luteal or follicular phases preceding the first AI, and differences in mean luteinizing hormone concentrations were small in a 6-h window in the follicular phase. The differences in conception rate at first AI in primiparous cows could not be explained on the basis of changes in peripheral hormone concentrations. The enhanced negative energy balance in primiparous cows fed Ca soaps apparently was related to the decrease in their conception rate.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Surveillance of handwashing episodes in adult intensive-care units by measuring an index of soap and paper towel consumption.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether handwashing surveillance could be conducted by measurements of soap and towel consumption. DESIGN AND PARTICIPANTS: In the medical intensive-care unit (MICU) of the Omaha Veterans' Affairs Medical Center, 10 4-hour day-time observation periods encompassing 409 handwashing episodes were scheduled in a 51-day period. In the surgical intensive-care unit (SICU), 7 4-hour periods encompassing 350 episodes were scheduled in a 49-day period. An observer measured paper towel height, towel weight, and soap weight at each sink. The observer also counted handwashing episodes and bed occupancy. Using handwashing episodes as a dependent variable, stepwise linear regression was performed with changes in towel height, towel weight, and soap weight as independent variables. RESULTS: Mean handwashing episodes per hour per occupied bed were 2.39 +/- 0.80 (standard deviation) in the MICU and 2.83 +/- 0.72 in the SICU. Correlation r with handwashing episodes for MICU changes was 0.891 for towel height, 0.950 for towel weight, and 0.882 for soap weight. Corresponding correlations for the SICU were 0.881, 0.918, and 0.904. For both units, stepwise regression retained changes in the weight of towels and soap as independent variables (P < .0001), with R2 0.965 (MICU) and 0.981 (SICU). CONCLUSION: Because soap and towel consumption measurements are closely related to handwashing frequency and because these measurements are easy to obtain, they offer a means of handwashing surveillance that can be sustained indefinitely. This can facilitate feedback-based interventions to improve handwashing frequency.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Preference and compliance of waterless hand-hygiene products versus soap and water.

PURPOSE: To compare handwashing using traditional antimicrobial soap and water with two antimicrobial waterless hand-hygiene products for personal preference and compliance. METHODS: Fifty dental and dental hygiene students were randomly chosen to participate in the study. All subjects were anonymously observed prior to the introduction of the waterless products for handwashing compliance using soap and water for 1 week. All subjects were then instructed on the use of a waterless gel and foam for handwashing. Both waterless products were used for a period of 1 week and students again were anonymously observed. A questionnaire was distributed at the conclusion of the study to determine product preference. RESULTS: During handwashing with soap and water, the average time the soap was in contact with the hands was 7.0 seconds. The average contact time with the gel and foam was 15.3 seconds and 20.0 seconds, respectfully. Questionnaire results indicated that the foam was significantly preferred over the gel and soap and water (54%, 28% and 16%, respectively). The foam was also significantly preferred when evaluating fragrance (52%), kindness to the skin (66%), convenience (64%) and fastest drying time (54%). Results from this study indicate that the waterless foam product was significantly preferred over the waterless gel and traditional soap and water for handwashing procedures. Since handwashing guidelines, regardless of which product used, recommend a minimum of 15 seconds to minimize the number of transient microorganisms on the hands, compliance was found only with the foam and the gel.

Anti-Infective Agents, Local↗
PubMed1978

[Effect of soap and detergents on the restitution of acidity and lipids of the skin surface].

A comparative evaluation of the effects of soaps and detergents on pH behaviour and lipids level on the skin surface and duration of their restitution was carried out. The studies were conducted in two groups. The first group of 32 persons used 1% solution of "BHP" soap, whereas the other one, composed of 31 persons, 0,5% solution of detergentpowder "POLLENA". PH measurements of skin were performed using pH--meter of Radelkis firm with a combined glass and calomel electrode. Lipids on the skin surface were determined by the Hodgson--Jones and Wheatly's gravimetric method. The evaluation of soap and detergent's effects on skin was based on the mean output and direct pH values of the skin surface, accidental and residual level of lipids, and comparison of the duration of these parameters restitution. The soap was found to alkalyse stronger than the detergent, and duration of pH restitution is longer after using the soap, whereas the detergent degreases the skin more intensively than the soap. Also restitution of lipid's jacket is slower after using the detergent.

Detergents↗
PubMed1993

Toxicity of washing soaps to Schistosoma mansoni cercariae and effects of sublethal concentrations on infectivity in mice.

5 brands of washing powders and a brand of local soap made in Nigeria were tested for toxicity to cercariae of the Nigerian strain of S. mansoni. The tests revealed that all washing soaps were super-toxic to cercariae at high concentrations, with soap bars being comparatively less toxic. The detergents killed all cercariae instantly at 250-4000 ppm while soap bars achieved the same effect between 3000-4000 ppm. At lower concentration 25-100 ppm, the detergents required less than 60 min to kill 100% of the cercariae while soap bars required less than 12 h. The 12 hours LC 50 and LC 90 for Omo (detergent) and local soap were determined. Also the effects of sub-lethal concentrations 1.25-10 ppm on the infectivity of cercariae in mice were evaluated. These tests revealed that the treatment suppressed infectivity and that the degree of suppression increased with increase in the sub-lethal concentration, 85.4% at 10 ppm as compared to 42.8% at 1.25 ppm.

Animals↗
PubMed1996

Ocular burn caused by soft brown soap.

PURPOSE: To report the danger of serious chemical ocular burn caused by common household soap. CASE HISTORY: A 20 year old male developed an extensive burn of the right eye after the commonly used soft brown soap (also called floor soap) fell into his face and right eye. The burn caused conjunctival ischemia and necrosis. The cornea was oedematous and denuded of epithelium. The pH of the soap was 11.8. The patient received treatment for alkali burn of the eye. Stem cell transplantation was needed to heal the corneal surface defect. Scar formation and peripheral neovascularisation have reduced the visual acuity to counting fingers at 75 cm. CONCLUSION: This case of serious alkali burn caused by the common soft brown soap demonstrates the potential hazard to the eyes. The manufacturer was sought to write the pH and a warning on the exterior of the container that the "soft brown soap" may cause serious ocular injury.

Adult↗
PubMed1998

Soaps and detergents: understanding their composition and effect.

Soaps have been used for thousands of years as part of religious ceremonies and daily life. Derived from fatty acids or triglycerides (fats or oils) into their alkali derivatives through a process called saponification, soaps are important for healthcare professionals in preventing the spread of disease. Partly due to their alkaline nature, soaps are limited by their irritancy to the skin and their tendency to form insoluble and inactive salts when combined with either hard water or sea water. Therefore, soap alternatives or synthetic detergents have been developed. Detergents are classified into four groups: anionic, cationic, amphoteric, and non-ionic. These four groups are based on the hydrophilic qualities and surfactants they possess. Each group has characteristics that pertain to its main uses, irritancy, and toxicity. Understanding soaps and detergents may assist clinicians in making intelligent choices when using these agents on their patients as either skin cleansers or wound cleansers. Understanding the characteristics of soaps and detergents is especially important when dealing with at-risk patients such as the elderly.

Bacterial Infections↗