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PubMed2001

Wrinkled alfalfa seeds harbor more aerobic bacteria and are more difficult to sanitize than smooth seeds.

At least 14 separate outbreaks of food poisoning attributed to either Salmonella enterica or Escherichia coli O157:H7 have been traced to sprouts in the past decade. Seeds contaminated with human pathogens caused most of these outbreaks, thus many sprout growers are now treating alfalfa seeds with the sanitizing agent, calcium hypochlorite (Ca[OCl]2), prior to sprouting. The efficacy of alfalfa seed sanitation varies between seed lots and between seeds within each lot. Alfalfa seeds from different seed lots were sorted by type in an effort to determine if certain seed types carry more aerobic bacteria than other seed types. Seeds with a wrinkled type, characteristic of lygus bug damage, had significantly higher levels of culturable aerobic bacteria and were more difficult to sanitize than smooth, healthy seeds. After sanitation, wrinkled alfalfa seeds that had been inoculated with S. enterica ser. Newport carried significantly higher levels of Salmonella Newport than smooth seeds. If S. enterica is present on wrinkled seeds in naturally contaminated seed lots, it may be difficult to chemically sanitize the seed lot. Removal of the wrinkled alfalfa seeds from the seed lots, perhaps by adapting color sorting equipment similar to that used to sort rice grains and other seeds, should reduce the level of aerobic bacteria in seed lots and may result in lower levels of human pathogens on contaminated alfalfa seeds.

Bacteria, Aerobic↗
PubMed2000

Water, sanitation and diarrhoea.

Water, sanitation and health are inseparably linked. Diarrhoea and other water related diseases are the major causes of health problems in developing countries. Although the need for water and sanitation interventions for health promotion has been recognised, these are labeled as costly and are often neglected in the primary healthcare programmes. Lack of proper water and sanitation initiatives based on appropriate techniques, technologies, knowledge and/or implementation methods have hindered the expected achievements through water and sanitation interventions. Since water and sanitation initiatives include both availability of provisions and their effective use (which mean behavioral changes), they are technically and socially challenging. Disasters and emerging water quality problems, such as arsenic in groundwater, have further been complicating this situation. After reviewing relevant articles, several research issues are suggested in the context of developing country perspectives.

Developing Countries↗
PubMed2001

Sanitation, community environments, and childhood diarrhoea in rural Zimbabwe.

Childhood diarrhoea can be transmitted within the household and community environments. This study examined the effect of partial latrine coverage on diarrhoeal morbidity at the household and community levels. Weekly morbidity data on 272 children, aged less than five years, were collected for 45 weeks from October 1996 to August 1997 in two neighbouring semi-arid communities in rural Zimbabwe. The communities were similar except for sanitation. In Community A, 62% of the children lived in households with a latrine, and in Community B, there was no sanitation. Diarrhoeal morbidity was 68% lower in Community A than in Community B. In addition, the children from the households in Community A without a latrine had lower diarrhoeal morbidity than the children in Community B. The inter-community difference in diarrhoeal morbidity was likely to be due to the latrines and associated hygiene education interrupting intra- and inter-household transmission of diarrhoea. The latrines reduced faecal contamination of the community environment, and as diarrhoeal morbidity fell, contact between infectives and susceptibles within the community would also have fallen. The neighbourhoods in Community A where the adjacent households did not have sanitation had higher diarrhoeal morbidity than in the neighbourhoods where one household did have sanitation. The results of the study suggest that sanitation programmes, which share building costs between the state and individuals, i.e. households, and hence, do not achieve complete coverage in a community, benefit the whole community, because the households that cannot afford a latrine experience lower diarrhoeal morbidity due to the safer community environment.

Child↗
PubMed2004

The prominence of health in donor policy for water supply and sanitation: a review.

Improved water supply, sanitation and hygiene used in combination are effective at achieving better health for poor people in developing countries. However, donor policy has been dominated by interventions in water supply, at the expense of achieving the potential health benefits of improved sanitation and hygiene. Commitments recently made by the international community require greater emphasis on improved sanitation and hygiene and their impacts on health. This review assesses whether such a shift in emphasis is apparent in donor policy. It examines the prominence given to achieving better health in water supply and sanitation policies of three donors: the World Bank, the European Union and the Department for International Development of the British Government. It finds that health benefits are explicit and integral in recently updated policy documentation concerning water supply and sanitation. This has taken place in an environment focused on poverty reduction and demand-led, financially sustainable interventions. Mechanisms that have enabled donors to prioritise the health impacts in this environment are discussed, including adoption of an asset-based conceptualisation of poverty and a cross-sectoral approach.

Communicable Disease Control↗
PubMed1985

The essential role of drinking water and sanitation in primary health care.

The purpose of the paper is to draw attention to the fact that drinking water supply and the provision of sanitation facilities form an indispensable element in disease prevention and primary health care programmes. The world situation regarding the availability of drinking water and sanitation facilities is dramatic, in that more than 1500 million people lact proper facilities; the implications in terms of health and cost are stupendous. It is therefore a fortunate development that the International Drinking Water and Sanitation Decade (1981-1990) is on its way to an appealing initiative. The paper discusses water and sanitation related diseases, and the established experience that water and sanitation programmes can only have a health impact if they are jointly developed, and if they are integrated with health education. Operational implications of such programmes as an element of primary health care are reviewed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1994

Drinking-water quality, sanitation, and breast-feeding: their interactive effects on infant health.

The promotion of proper infant feeding practices and the improvement of environmental sanitation have been two important strategies in the effort to reduce diarrhoeal morbidity among infants. Breast-feeding protects infants by decreasing their exposure to water- and foodborne pathogens and by improving their resistance to infection; good sanitation isolates faecal material from the human environment, reducing exposures to enteric pathogens. Taken together, breast-feeding and good sanitation form a set of sequential barriers that protect infants from diarrhoeal pathogens. As a result, breast-feeding may be most important if the sanitation barrier is not in place. This issue is explored using data from a prospective study of 2355 urban Filipino infants during the first 6 months of life. Longitudinal multivariate analyses are used to estimate the effects of full breast-feeding and mixed feeding on diarrhoeal disease at different levels of sanitation. Breast-feeding provides significant protection against diarrhoeal disease for infants in all environments. Administration of even small portions of contaminated water supplements to fully breast-fed infants nearly doubles their risk of diarrhoea. Mixed-fed and weaned infants consume much greater quantities of supplemental liquids, and as a result, the protective effect of full breast-feeding is greatest when drinking-water is contaminated. Similarly, full breast-feeding has stronger protective effects among infants living in crowded, highly contaminated settings.

Adult↗
PubMed1990

Efficiency of sanitizing agents for destroying Listeria monocytogenes on contaminated surfaces.

In an effort to control the potential hazard of dairy product contamination by contact with processing surfaces, the efficiency of four commercial sanitizing agents was evaluated using the AOAC use-dilution method for their bactericidal activity at 4 and 20 degrees C against Listeria monocytogenes strain Scott-A attached on four types of surfaces (stainless steel, glass, polypropylene, and rubber). Our results indicate that all sanitizers tested were more efficient against L. monocytogenes attached to nonporous surfaces than to porous surfaces. After 10 min of contact time, the limit concentration of disinfectants was at least 5 to 10 times higher for sanitizing rubber than stainless steel or glass surfaces. Concentrations of each sanitizer needed to be higher at sanitation at 4 degrees C than at 20 degrees C to destroy L. monocytogenes attached to stainless steel, glass and rubber when surface contamination was achieved at 4 or 20 degrees C.

Disinfection↗
PubMed1997

Effectiveness of sanitation with quaternary ammonium compound or chlorine on stainless steel and other domestic food-preparation surfaces.

The relative ability of various materials used for domestic and/or food-service sinks and countertops to be sanitized was determined. Both smooth (unused) and abraded surfaces were tested by exposure to 200 mg of quaternary ammonium compound per liter or 200 mg of sodium hypochlorite per liter. Surface materials tested included mechanically polished (type 304, #4 finish) and electropolished stainless steel, polycarbonate, and mineral resin. Surfaces were prepared for testing by allowing attachment of a Staphylococcus aureus culture for 4 h to achieve an initial attached population of 10(4) to 10(5) CFU/cm2. The test procedure involved immersion of the surface in sanitizer solution followed by wiping with a sanitizer-saturated cloth. Residual staphylococci were detected by overlaying agar directly on the treated surface. Results indicated that the stainless steels and the smooth polycarbonate, which had 0.5 log CFU/cm2 or fewer of residual staphylococci, were more readily sanitized by quaternary ammonium compound than were either the mineral resin surfaces, which had nearly 2.0 log CFU/cm2 of residual staphylococci, or the abraded polycarbonate which had nearly 1.0 log CFU/cm2 of residual staphylococci. Chlorine was most effective on the mechanically polished stainless steel, the unabraded electropolished stainless steel, and the polycarbonate surfaces, reducing cell populations to less than 1.0 log CFU/cm2. Chlorine was less effective on abraded electropolished stainless steel and mineral resin surfaces, where populations remained greater than 1.0 log CFU/cm2. Sanitation with quaternary ammonium compound or chlorine reduced S. aureus populations more than 1,000-fold on all surfaces except unabraded mineral resin.

Bacterial Adhesion↗
PubMed1999

Inactivation of Listeria monocytogenes/Pseudomonas biofilms by peracid sanitizers.

The ability of peracetic acid and peroctanoic acid sanitizers to inactivate mixed-culture biofilms of a Pseudomonas sp. and Listeria monocytogenes on stainless steel was investigated. Types of biofilms tested included a 4-h attachment of the mixed-cell suspension and a 48-h biofilm of mixed culture formed in skim milk or tryptic soy broth. Biofilm-containing coupons were immersed in solutions of hypochlorite, peracetic acid, and peroctanoic acid either with or without organic challenge. Organic challenge consisted of either coating the biofilms with milk that were then allowed to dry, or adding milk to the sanitizing solution to achieve a 5% concentration. Surviving cells were enumerated by pouring differential agar directly on the treated surfaces. The peracid sanitizers were more effective than chlorine for inactivating biofilm in the presence of organic challenge. The 48-h mixed-culture biofilm grown in milk was reduced to less than 3 CFU/cm2 by 160 ppm of peracid sanitizer after 1 min of exposure. Peroctanoic acid was more effective than peracetic acid against biofilm cells under conditions of organic challenge. Pseudomonas and L. monocytogenes were inactivated to similar levels by the sanitizer treatments, even though Pseudomonas predominated in the initial biofilm population.

Acetates↗
PubMed2000

Attachment and growth of Salmonella Chester on apple fruits and in vivo response of attached bacteria to sanitizer treatments.

Attachment and growth of Salmonella Chester on fresh-cut apple disks and in vivo response of attached bacteria to sanitizer treatments were investigated. Apple disks (14 mm in diameter and 3 to 4 mm in thickness) were immersed in a bacterial suspension that contained 8.17 log CFU/ml of Salmonella Chester and air dried at room temperature for 10 min. After two rinses, the population of Salmonella Chester retained on apple disks that contained no skin was 13 to 19% higher than that retained on disks that contained skin, indicating that Salmonella Chester attached more firmly to the surfaces of injured tissue than to the unbroken skin. The number of bacteria attached to the disk was not affected by the immersion time but was directly proportional to the concentration of bacteria in the suspension. The distribution of artificially inoculated Salmonella Chester on the surfaces of three different parts of whole fruit was determined; 94% of attached bacteria was found on the stem and calyx cavity areas and 6% on the skin of the remaining area of the fruit. Despite their acidic pH (4.1), apple disks supported the growth of Salmonella Chester at 20 degrees C but not at 8 degrees C. All four sanitizers tested in the study, including 6% hydrogen peroxide, 2% trisodium phosphate, 0.36% calcium hypochlorite, and 1.76% sodium hypochlorite, were effective in reducing the population of Salmonella Chester on apple disks by 1 to 2 logs. However, 5 to 13% of bacteria survived the sanitizer treatments. Hydrogen peroxide, which reduced the population of Salmonella Chester on skin by 3 to 4 logs and the population of bacteria on stem or calyx by 1 to 2 logs, was the most effective among the four sanitizers tested. Firm attachment of bacteria on calyx, stem, and injured tissue and partial resistance of attached bacteria to sanitizer treatments are two major obstacles to be considered when developing methods for cleaning and decontaminating apple fruits destined for juice production and fresh consumption.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Efficacy of two cleaning and sanitizing combinations on Listeria monocytogenes biofilms formed at low temperature on a variety of materials in the presence of ready-to-eat meat residue.

Biofilms in the food-processing industry are a serious concern due to the potential for contamination of food products, which may lead to decreased food quality and safety. The effect of two detergent and sanitizer combinations on the inactivation of Listeria monocytogenes biofilms was studied. Combination A uses a chlorinated-alkaline, low-phosphate detergent, and dual peracid sanitizer. Combination B uses a solvated-alkaline environmental sanitation product and hypochlorite sanitizer. The survival of bacterial biofilms placed at 4 and 10 degrees C and held for up to 5 days was also addressed. To simulate conditions found in a ready-to-eat meat-processing environment, biofilms were developed in low-nutrient conditions at 10 degrees C (with and without meat and fat residue) on a variety of materials found in a plant setting. Included were two types of stainless steel, three materials for conveyor use, two rubber products, a wall, and floor material. Biofilms developed on all surfaces tested; numbers at day 2 ranged from 3.2 log on silicone rubber to 4.47 log CFU/cm2 on Delrin, an acetal copolymer. Biofilm survival during storage was higher at 4 degrees C (36.3 to 1,621%) than 10 degrees C (4.5 to 83.2%). Small amounts of meat extract, frankfurters, or pork fat reduced biofilm formation initially; with time, the biofilm cell number and survival percentage increased. Cleaning efficacy was surface dependent and decreased with residue-soiled surfaces; biofilms developed on the brick and conveyor material were most resistant. Both detergents significantly (P < 0.05) removed or inactivated biofilm bacteria. The sanitizers further reduced biofilm numbers; however, the reduction was not significant in most cases for the dual peracid. Using a benchmark efficacy of >3-log reduction, combination A was only effective on 50.0% of the samples, Combination B, at 86.1%, was more effective.

Biofilms↗
PubMed2004

Influence of variations in methodology on populations of Listeria monocytogenes recovered from lettuce treated with sanitizers.

The elimination of Listeria monocytogenes inoculated onto a piece of cut iceberg lettuce (3.8 by 3.8 cm) by treatment with chlorinated water (200 micrograms/ml free chlorine) and a 0.5% (wt/vol) solution of FIT Professional Line Antibacterial Cleaner (FIT) was investigated. The efficacy of the two sanitizers was not influenced by the composition of the medium used to culture the L. monocytogenes used in the inocula, the number of strains in the inoculum, or the recovery medium used to enumerate the pathogen on lettuce after treatment. Drying inoculum on lettuce for 45 min at 37 degrees C caused more cells to die or not be retrieved compared with drying inoculum for 30 min at 25 degrees C. However, the percentage of cells in the inoculum recovered from lettuce treated with chlorine or FIT was not significantly different, regardless of the drying method. Stomaching, homogenizing, or stomaching followed by homogenizing lettuce treated with sanitizers resulted in recovery of similar numbers of L. monocytogenes, indicating that stomaching and homogenizing are equivalent in extracting cells; the sequential use of both processing methods did not substantially increase the efficiency of recovery. Washing lettuce with water or treating lettuce with 200 micrograms/ml chlorine or FIT resulted in decreases in populations of 0.60, 1.76, and 1.51 log CFU per lettuce piece, respectively, regardless of variations in test parameters. Reductions caused by sanitizers were significantly greater (alpha = 0.05) than that observed for water but not significantly different from each other. It is concluded that evaluation of sanitizers for their efficacy in killing L. monocytogenes on lettuce can be determined by spot inoculating 50 microliters of a five-strain mixture of cells from 24-h cultures suspended in 5% horse serum albumen, followed by drying the inoculum for 45 min at 37 degrees C, treatment by submerging in 50 ml of sanitizer for 5 min, stomaching samples in 50 ml of Dey-Engley neutralizing broth for 2 min, and enumerating survivors on modified Oxford medium.

Chlorine↗
PubMed2004

Analysis of published sprout seed sanitization studies shows treatments are highly variable.

Consumption of raw sprouts has caused many foodborne illness outbreaks in the last decade, and most outbreaks have been linked to contaminated seeds. Many seed sanitization treatments have been studied as a means to reduce the risk of illness associated with sprouts. Published data on seed sanitization were analyzed collectively to identify factors that influenced the efficacy of seed sanitization and to determine the variability associated with various sanitization processes. Temperature and duration of the sanitization treatment were found to produce a negligible effect on log microbial reductions. Salmonella, Escherichia coli O157:H7, and total aerobic microorganisms were all inactivated at similar rates. Data were fit to triangular or uniform distributions for 16 different chemical treatments. Among the most effective treatments were 8% hydrogen peroxide (uniform distribution [2.5, 4.5]), 20,000 ppm of chlorine (triangular distribution [1, 2.5, 6.5]), and 1% Ca(OH)2 (triangular distribution [0.5, 4, 5]). Chemical treatments where more published data were available showed more variability.

Colony Count, Microbial↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Oxidation of protein by vaporized sanitizing agents.

For the first time, it has been demonstrated that a protein product can be oxidized readily by certain sanitizing agents through vapor transfer not only in a closed system but also in an open environment. The effect of several sanitizing agents on the oxidation of a model protein, IL-2 mutein, was investigated under different processing conditions. Reversed phase-high performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) was used to separate and quantitate both intact and oxidized IL-2 mutein. It was found that peracetic acid or NaOCl oxidizes IL-2 mutein instantaneously, while H2O2-induced oxidation of IL-2 mutein is much slower in solution. The amount of protein oxidation product is proportional to the duration of sample exposure and the type and concentration of the sanitizing agent. In addition, sanitizing agents can accelerate protein oxidation during lyophilization, and the residual amount can promote oxidation of the lyophilized product during storage. These results strongly suggest that the sanitization process needs to be properly controlled and closely monitored during manufacturing of drug products that are sensitive to oxidation.

Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid↗
PubMed1988

Reinfection with Ascaris lumbricoides after chemotherapy: a comparative study in three villages with varying sanitation.

This study examined the effect of the 2 major means of control of Ascaris lumbricoides--chemotherapy and sanitation. About 200 pre-school Caribbean children living in 3 villages with varying sanitation were studied by quantitative stool examination for the presence of the eggs of helminths. Children with Ascaris eggs were treated with piperazine. Over a 2-year period this procedure was repeated after every 6 months of natural re-infection. Results showed that (i) the rate of reinfection was on average 20% higher than the rate of new infection; (ii) there was a highly significant correlation between the results of children's initial stool examination and that 6 months later; (iii) children with high Ascaris egg counts also frequently had high Trichuris egg counts; (iv) during the 6-month intervals, 36% of the infected children were not reinfected after treatment; the difference in reinfection rates between villages with and without sanitation was 48%. Regression analysis indicated that, after several socio-economic variables were controlled, only sanitation and crowding remained significantly associated with reinfection. The implications of these findings in formulating control strategies are discussed.

Antinematodal Agents↗
PubMed1993

Diarrhoeal disease: current concepts and future challenges. Water, sanitation and diarrhoea: the limits of understanding.

This paper reviews the application of epidemiological understanding of diarrhoeal disease to interventions in water and sanitation. Over the past 20 years, great efforts have been made to elucidate the relationships between water supply, sanitation and diarrhoeal disease. At the outset, it was hoped that improved understanding of these relations could provide a rational framework for the planning of public health engineering interventions. This paper also reviews historical and recent perceptions of water, sanitation, and diarrhoeal disease, and summarizes progress to date. On the one hand, some fundamental ideas about the relative importance of water quality and quantity in the transmission of diarrhoeal disease have changed, and there is increased recognition of the complex interrelationships between interventions, hygiene behaviour and health. On the other hand, our understanding of the impact of interventions is painfully incomplete, and is unlikely to improve dramatically in the near future. While further research can usefully illustrate a variety of interactions in specific contexts, globally applicable planning guidelines and design criteria appear a dangerous will-o'-the-wisp. While we know more than ever before about water, sanitation and diarrhoea, much remains unknown, and is perhaps unknowable.

Child↗
PubMed1997

Integrating Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) and sanitation for verifiable food safety.

Reliable, verifiable food safety requires the application of technologically correct methods in a systematic way. This requires making a distinction between sanitation and Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) and integrating these two systems into one food safety system. Although sanitation and HACCP share the same goal of producing safe food products, the focus of sanitation is on the environment surrounding the food to prevent contamination, whereas the focus of HACCP is on controlling hazards intrinsic to food materials. Together they provide the organizational base for applying the correct methods and procedures to ensure and verify that food served is safe for foodservice clients. These approaches also provide records that demonstrate that food safety measures have been planned and completed as planned. One way to demonstrate a responsible approach to food safety is to understand the differences between sanitation and HACCP and to build approaches to food safety that use both of these systems. The resulting integrated system has a better chance of controlling all the hazards than either system by itself.

Cooking↗
PubMed2003

Home hygiene and environmental sanitation: a country situation analysis for India.

Problems of the environment and of domestic hygiene are always related to poverty of population and the sanitation of settlements. Most cities and towns in developing countries, like India, are characterised by over-crowding, congestion, inadequate water supply and inadequate facilities of disposal of human excreta, waste water and solid wastes. Inadequacy of housing for most urban poor invariably leads to poor home hygiene. Personal and domestic hygiene practices cannot be improved without improving basic amenities, such as water supply, waste water disposal, solid waste management and the problems of human settlements. But even under the prevailing conditions, there is significant scope of improving hygiene practices at home to prevent infection and cross-infection. Unfortunately, in developing countries, public health concerns are usually raised on the institutional setting, such as municipal services, hospitals, environmental sanitation, etc. There is a reluctance to acknowledge the home as a setting of equal importance along with the public institutions in the chain of disease transmission in the community. Managers of home hygiene and community hygiene must act in unison to optimise return from efforts to promote public health. Current practices and perceptions of domestic and personal hygiene in Indian communities, the existing levels of environmental and peri-domestic sanitation and the 'health risk' these pose will be outlined, as well as the need for an integrated action for improving hygiene behaviour and access to safe water and sanitation.

Developing Countries↗