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PubMedDate not supplied

Remediating the core deficits of developmental reading disability: a double-deficit perspective.

The double-deficit hypothesis (Wolf, 1997; Wolf & Bowers, 1999, this issue) contends that deficits in phonological awareness and deficits in visual naming speed represent two independent causal impediments to reading acquisition for children with developmental reading disabilities (RD). One hundred and sixty-six children with severe RD from 7 to 13 years of age were classified into three deficit subgroups according to a double-deficit framework. A total of 140 children with RD, 84% of the sample, were classified; 54% demonstrated a double deficit (DD), 22% a phonological deficit only (PHON), and 24% a visual-naming speed deficit only (VNS). Diagnostic test profiles highlighted the joint contributions of the two core deficits in depressing written language acquisition. The children in the DD group were more globally impaired than those in the other subgroups, and the VNS group children were the highest achieving and most selectively impaired readers. Following 35 hours of word identification training, sizable gains and significant generalization of training effects were achieved by all subgroups. A metacognitive phonics program resulted in greater generalized effects across the domain of real English words, and a phonological training program produced superior outcomes within the phonological processing domain. The greatest non-word reading gains were achieved by children with only phonological deficits.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1987

The development of reading: as you seek so shall you find.

In this paper we critically examine different methods of investigation of reading development and reading disability. We argue that there is need for longitudinal studies of reading where a differential design allows assessment of the relative degree of involvement of associated skills. We then describe one study of this type. The results chart the development of children who become skilled readers and of those with generalized or specific reading disability. They also demonstrate the crucial effects of decisions regarding subject matching, test design, and measurement of differential abilities on the outcomes of such investigations. A cohort of 40 children was assessed for their abilities on 44 variables which involved reading, spelling, vocabulary, short-term memory (STM), visual skills, auditory-visual integration, language knowledge, rote knowledge and ordering ability as they developed from five to eight years old. Three groups were extracted at age eight on the basis of reading and IQ scores. Group A showed a relatively specific reading disability (high IQ, low reading), Group B were good readers of similarly high IQ, Group C showed a more generalized reading deficit whereby they were at the same level as Group A in reading but their IQ scores were low. The data were then searched retrospectively to describe the development of these patterns of ability from the very beginnings of reading acquisition. The children with specific reading retardation differed from their better-reading peers in terms of relatively few variables which concerned phonological segmentation, STM and naming. The children with generalized reading disability differed from their better-reading peers in almost every respect, but the strong discriminators concerned phonological processing. The children with specific reading disability differed from those with generalized reading disability in terms of abilities which involve visual processing. These patterns of ability were replicated at each age from five to seven years old.

Achievement↗
PubMed1994

The road not taken: an integrative theoretical model of reading disability.

This article describes a theoretical model of reading disability that integrates a wide range of research findings in cognitive psychology, reading, and education across the age and grade span. The model shows how reading disability relates to normal reading acquisition, and includes four possible patterns of reading disability: nonalphabetic readers, compensatory readers, nonautomatic readers, and readers delayed in the acquisition of word-recognition skills. We compare our model to the models of other investigators and argue that our model is especially useful to practitioners. Finally, we discuss some of the educational implications of the model.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Hyperlexia profiles.

Two hyperlexic individuals were tested on reading outcome measures and on basic skills shown to be critical in reading acquisition. Results suggested distinct pathways to superior word recognition skills that can be described under a contemporary model of skilled reading, with differential acquisition of basic skills; superior word recognition skill was associated in both cases with specialized development in one basic area, that of orthographic processing. Results supported an asset rather than a deficit analysis of hyperlexia: Rather than assimilating to reading pathology (dyslexia) subtypes, hyperlexia was seen to be accompanied by assets that are absent in dyslexic profiles.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

The effects of spelling consistency on phonological awareness: a comparison of English and German.

Within alphabetic languages, spelling-to-sound consistency can differ dramatically. For example, English and German are very similar in their phonological and orthographic structure but not in their consistency. In English the letter a is pronounced differently in the words bank, ball, and park, whereas in German the letter a always has the same pronunciation (e.g., Ball, Park, Bank). It is often argued that reading acquisition has a reciprocal effect on phonological awareness. As reading is acquired, therefore, spoken language representation may be affected differently for English and German children. Prior to literacy acquisition, however, phonological representation in English and German children should be similar due to the similar phonological structure of the two languages. We explored this hypothesis by comparing phonological awareness at the rime and phoneme levels in prereaders and beginning readers in English and German. Similar developmental effects were indeed observed in prereaders, but differential effects had emerged within the first year of reading instruction.

Awareness↗
PubMed2004

Is there a causal link from phonological awareness to success in learning to read?

In this review, we re-assess the evidence that phonological awareness represents a skill specific to spoken language that precedes and directly influences the process of reading acquisition. Longitudinal and experimental training studies are examined in detail, as these are considered most appropriate for exploring a causal hypothesis of this nature. A particular focus of our analysis is the degree to which studies to date have controlled for existing literacy skills in their participants and the influence that these skills might have on performance on phonological awareness tasks. We conclude that no study has provided unequivocal evidence that there is a causal link from competence in phonological awareness to success in reading and spelling acquisition. However, we believe that such a study is possible and outline some ideas for its design and implementation.

Awareness↗
PubMed2003

Effects of orthographic transparency on reading and phoneme awareness in children learning to read in Wales.

The relationship between the development of reading skills and the consistency of the orthography (writing system) is investigated in a study that examines reading acquisition in children living in Wales. Performance of children learning to read Welsh (a transparent alphabetic orthography) on tests of reading and phoneme detection was compared with the performance of children learning to read English (an opaque alphabetic orthography). The children were tested during their second year of formal reading instruction at school when they were aged between 5 and 6 years, and again one year later. The children learning to read in Welsh performed significantly better at reading both real words and nonwords than children learning to read in English. The English readers made fewer phonologically based reading errors. The Welsh readers also performed better on a phoneme awareness task. These findings support the claim that children learn to read more quickly in a transparent orthography, and provide further evidence that the consistency of the orthography influences the initial adoption of different strategies for word recognition.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed1977

Cerebral dominance in disabled readers, good readers, and gifted children: search for a valid model.

A group of 10 reading-disabled children with average intelligence were compared with 11 good readers of average intelligence and 12 academically accelerated, gifted children on their recognition of words presented tachistoscopically under simultaneous, bilateral viewing conditions. The poor readers were inferior in right-field performance compared with the gifted children and good readers. With IQ as a covariate, the poor readers produced a higher left-field score and a lower visual-field difference score in comparison with the gifted children. It is argued that the skills needed to become literate are not isomorphic biologically with general linguistic competence. The results suggest (1) that reading acquisition involves enhanced left-hemisphere decoding of written language and (2) that reading disability is related to the prevalence of a right-hemisphere-based perceptual coding strategy.

Child↗
PubMed2004

Age-of-acquisition effects in reading aloud: tests of cumulative frequency and frequency trajectory.

Several studies have reported that the age at which a word is learned affects skilled reading. This age-of-acquisition effect is potentially important for theories of reading and learning. The effect has been difficult to pin down, however, because the age at which a word is learned is correlated with many other lexical properties. Zevin and Seidenberg (2002) analyzed these phenomena, using connectionist models that distinguished between cumulative frequency (the total number of times a word is experienced) and frequency trajectory (the distribution of these experiences over time). The models prompted a reevaluation of the empirical literature on this topic. The present research tested and confirmed three behavioral predictions derived from these models. First, cumulative frequency has an impact on skilled word naming, more so than standard measures of frequency derived from such norms as those of Kucera and Francis (1967). Second, frequency trajectory affects age of acquisition: The timing of exposure to words affects how rapidly they are learned. However, frequency trajectory does not affect skilled reading aloud, because the consistencies in mapping between spelling and sound eventually wash out the effects of early differences in frequency of exposure. Thus, in skilled performance, the timing of exposure to words is less important than the amount of exposure. The results clarify the conditions under which age-dependent learning effects occur in reading aloud.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Foundation literacy acquisition in European orthographies.

Several previous studies have suggested that basic decoding skills may develop less effectively in English than in some other European orthographies. The origins of this effect in the early (foundation) phase of reading acquisition are investigated through assessments of letter knowledge, familiar word reading, and simple nonword reading in English and 12 other orthographies. The results confirm that children from a majority of European countries become accurate and fluent in foundation level reading before the end of the first school year. There are some exceptions, notably in French, Portuguese, Danish, and, particularly, in English. The effects appear not to be attributable to differences in age of starting or letter knowledge. It is argued that fundamental linguistic differences in syllabic complexity and orthographic depth are responsible. Syllabic complexity selectively affects decoding, whereas orthographic depth affects both word reading and nonword reading. The rate of development in English is more than twice as slow as in the shallow orthographies. It is hypothesized that the deeper orthographies induce the implementation of a dual (logographic + alphabetic) foundation which takes more than twice as long to establish as the single foundation required for the learning of a shallow orthography.

Child↗
PubMed1987

A developmental approach to reading disability: accuracy and speed criteria of normal and deficient reading skill.

The constructs of accuracy and speed were adopted as performance criteria against which to define 2 clinical samples of disabled readers. Accuracy-disabled subjects had failed to achieve reliable age-appropriate word recognition skills. Rate-disabled readers were age-appropriate in word recognition accuracy but deficient in reading speed. These disabled readers were compared to fluent normal children selected to be reading at the same level of accuracy as the rate-disabled subjects but at a significantly faster rate. All aspects of the accuracy-disabled subjects' reading systems proved deficient, and these children were less able to learn new sound-symbol associations in a task simulating initial reading acquisition. The rate-disabled subjects exhibited a basic deficit in word recognition speed, compromised accuracy when reading in context, and compromised spelling when competing visual patterns were available. A multidimensional oral language impairment was found to accompany the accuracy disability, while the rate disability appeared restricted to language in its visible form and the naming of visual representations. A visual naming speed impairment was associated with both profiles of deficient reading skill.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Understanding print: early reading development and the contributions of home literacy experiences.

This study explored the development of children's early understanding of visual and orthographic aspects of print and how this is related to early reading acquisition. A total of 474 children, ages 48 to 83 months, completed standardized measures of phonological awareness and early reading skills. They also completed experimental tasks that tapped their understanding of what constitutes "readable" print. The parents of participants completed a questionnaire regarding their children's home literacy experiences. The data showed systematic development in children's understanding of print conventions and English orthography and spelling. Regression analyses indicated that print knowledge was related to early reading skill, even after accounting for variance due to age and phonological awareness. Furthermore, parents' ratings of the extent of their children's involvement in activities that led to practice in reading and writing most consistently predicted the development of emerging literacy skills, including understanding of the conventions of the English writing system. Little relation between print knowledge and the frequency of storybook reading by adults was observed.

Child↗
PubMed2002

The effects of familiarity, orthographic neighbourhood density, letter-length and graphemic complexity on children's reading accuracy.

Six to seven year-old children, divided into two groups according to reading ability, read items designed to examine the effect of orthographic characteristics on reading accuracy. Two experiments were carried out using familiar words and nonwords as stimuli. The words and nonwords had comparable orthographic structures, and the number of orthographic neighbours was manipulated. Both reader groups participated in Expt 1, which involved three-letter items, but only the more-skilled group participated in Expt 2, which involved four-letter items. The results showed that familiar words were read more accurately than nonwords. In addition, the children were more accurate with the three-letter items than the four-letter items, and neighbourhood density affected only three-letter items. Expt 2 allowed comparisons between simple and complex graphemes. Complex vowels were more difficult than simple, and also posed more problems than common complex consonants. The results are discussed in relation to descriptions of orthographic development outlined in models of reading acquisition.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Revealing the hidden world of research.

Bringing the science of schooling into standard practice for students with learning disabilities (LD) is a threefold process that requires understanding the nature and features of high-quality instruction, encouraging their use, and developing and maintaining systems that can sustain them. Examples are drawn from the LD research base to illustrate each of these areas, with a focus on research in reading acquisition with young children at risk of LD and with older students with LD. These examples suggest a continued push for special education reading instruction through and past the elementary years. I conclude with recommendations for preparing teachers that take advantage of the knowledge gained from research-to-practice endeavors across the country.

Education, Special↗
PubMed2004

Vowel duration affects visual word identification: evidence that the mediating phonology is phonetically informed.

What form is the lexical phonology that gives rise to phonological effects in visual lexical decision? The authors explored the hypothesis that beyond phonological contrasts the physical phonetic details of words are included. Three experiments using lexical decision and 1 using naming compared processing times for printed words (e.g., plead and pleat) that differ, when spoken, in vowel length and overall duration. Latencies were longer for long-vowel words than for short-vowel words in lexical decision but not in naming. Further, lexical decision on long-vowel words benefited more from identity priming than lexical decision on short-vowel words, suggesting that representations of long-vowel words achieve activation thresholds more slowly. The discussion focused on phonetically informed phonologies, particularly gestural phonology and its potential for understanding reading acquisition and performance.

Humans↗
PubMed2005

Process dissociation of sight vocabulary and phonetic decoding in reading: a new perspective on surface and phonological dyslexias.

Recent research on developmental dyslexia has suggested a phonological core deficit hypothesis (e.g., Manis, Seidenberg, Doi, McBride-Chang, & Peterson, 1996; Stanovich, Siegel, & Gottardo, 1997) whereby pure cases of developmental phonological dyslexia (dysfunctional phonetic decoding processing but normal sight vocabulary processing) can exist, but pure cases of developmental surface dyslexia (dysfunctional sight vocabulary processing but normal phonetic decoding processing) should not. By applying Jacoby's (1991) and Lindsay and Jacoby's (1994) process dissociation procedure to the reading of regular and exception words, we present a method that serves to estimate readers' reliance on sight vocabulary and phonetic decoding during real word recognition. These reliance estimates are then used in Castles and Coltheart's (1993) regression-based approach to identify normal readers and developmental dyslexics. This new method: (1) allows one to explore normal reading acquisition and both the delay and deviance accounts of developmental dyslexia, (2) provides an alternative to matching dyslexics to both chronological-age and reading-age control groups, and (3) uses only real words. We present evidence that pure cases of developmental surface dyslexia can be obtained with both Castles and Coltheart's measure as well as our own, and that developmental surface dyslexia is not simply a delayed reading deficit. The theoretical importance and utility of estimates of reliance on sight vocabulary and phonetic decoding is discussed.

Child↗
PubMed2003

Word superiority, pseudoword superiority, and learning to read: a comparison of dyslexic and normal readers.

Identification of letters embedded in briefly presented words (e.g., TABLE), pseudowords (e.g., TOBLE), and illegal nonwords (e.g., TPBFE) was measured using the Reicher-Wheeler paradigm. Children diagnosed as dyslexic and showing a clear disadvantage in recognizing and reading aloud words and pseudowords (compared to chronological age-matched controls) showed a pattern of results that was qualitatively identical to both reading age and chronological age control children. In all three groups a small nonsignificant advantage was obtained for letter identification in words compared to pseudowords, and a massive advantage for letter identification in pseudowords compared to illegal nonwords. A group of adult participants tested with the same materials showed the classic word superiority effect as well as a pseudoword advantage over illegal nonwords. These results suggest that the pseudoword superiority effect is subtended by regularities operating at the level of sublexical orthographic representations (orthotactic constraints). This phenomenon could provide a useful tool for future investigations of the development of orthotactic constraints during reading acquisition.

Child↗
PubMed2002

In the beginning was the rhyme? A reflection on Hulme, Hatcher, Nation, Brown, Adams, and Stuart (2002).

Phonological sensitivity at different grain sizes is a good predictor of reading acquisition in all languages. However, prior to any explicit tuition in alphabetic knowledge, phonological sensitivity develops at the larger grain sizes-syllables, onsets, and rimes-in all languages so far studied. There are also developmental differences in the grain size of lexical representations and reading strategies across orthographies. Phoneme-level skills develop fastest in children acquiring orthographically consistent languages with a simple syllabic (CV) structure, such as Finnish and Italian. For English, however, both "large" and "small" units are important for the successful acquisition of literacy.

Awareness↗