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PubMed1994

'The Tower of Babel' or 'after Babel in contemporary psychoanalysis'? Some historical and theoretical notes on the linguistic and cultural strategies implied by the foundation of the International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, and on its relevance today.

The author uses private correspondence and documents referring to the foundation of the 'International Journal of Psycho-Analysis' and the 'Glossary' for translating Freud's work, to try to delineate the political and cultural strategy of Jones in founding and developing the 'International Journal of Psycho-Analysis'. Both strategies were based on the wish to have administrative and cultural control of psychoanalysis in the English-speaking countries. In the end Jones and his colleagues succeeded in making the language they created the official language of the IPA; through control of Freud's translations, through the 'Glossary' and particularly through its diffusion in the 'Journal'. The author briefly illustrates the various cultural sources of this attempt and tries to show the similarities between the project of Jones and the first generation of pioneers of psychoanalysis in Great Britain and the myth of the tower of Babel--one of its most important foundation stones being the 'International Journal'. Finally, the author stresses that those issues are still extremely alive in psychoanalysis today. But, confronted with the near-Babel of languages of contemporary psychoanalysis, can we still imply the existence of this universal common language and use it? Can the 'International Journal' still maintain its hegemony? Do we really understand each other even when we use the same technical terminology in English? Or shall we accept that today we should live without a tower of Babel in psychoanalysis? The author concludes that there is some hope, provided that we do not pursue meanings to the forbidden limit of the absolute.

Europe↗
PubMed1994

"What will happen if my Zurichers desert me?" The favorable reception of psychoanalysis in Switzerland.

Psychoanalysis has developed in a unique way in every country where it exists. This article discusses historical reasons for the favorable reception of psychoanalysis in Switzerland. Information is provided on the roles of psychiatrists, educators, and pastors in early twentieth century Swiss psychoanalysis. The factor of nationalism in the reception of psychoanalysis is emphasized. It is suggested that, in some countries, religion has played a positive role in the development of psychoanalysis.

History, 19th Century↗
PubMed1990

The Tao, psychoanalysis and existential thought.

The purpose of this paper is to clarify some existing misunderstandings in the area of psychotherapy, existential approach and the Eastern Tao (Zen Buddhism, Confucianism, Lao-tzu, Chuang-tzu) by showing the common elements between Eastern Tao and psychoanalysis, and existential thought. The author compared the goal of Tao practice, namely, Zen Buddhism, Confucianism etc. with that of Western psychoanalysis, humanistic psychology and transpersonal psychotherapy. He concludes that these goals are the same and that the names are different. He also compared the procedures and processes of psychoanalysis and Zen practice. Sudden enlightenment and gradual training in Zen practice were compared with insight and 'working through' in psychoanalysis. Zen emphasis on relationship, ego strength and interpretation was linked with similar topics in psychoanalysis. The results of Zen practice and the central features of every psychoanalytic treatment were examined and found the same, that is, the resolution of, or transcending of, love (dependence) and hate (hostility). The description of a mature analyst and that of a Boddhisattva were compared and found the same. A trace of neurotic motivation remains but they are not influenced by it in helping others. The problem of theory and reality was discussed and strong emphasis on reality was described; in other words, the goal is directed at reality and theory is only a means pointing at reality. If you see the reality, you should forget the theory.

Buddhism↗
PubMed1987

Rules of clinical understanding in classical psychoanalysis and in self psychology: a comparison.

This paper compares the rules that govern clinical understanding in classical psychoanalysis and in self psychology. The rules of understanding in the two systems are fundamentally different. Self psychology interprets causes and relies on interpretive rules similar to those used in allegory. Classical psychoanalysis investigates reasons and seeks to uncover the patient's own interpretive system. Self psychology refinds its own theory in the relation between elements disguised in the manifest content of patients' productions. Classical psychoanalysis seeks to open up manifest content. Where self psychology reiterates theory in its interpretations, classical interpretations move away from theoretical generalizations toward specific fantasy-memory constellations. Theory, in self psychology, organizes directly the content of interpretations; theory in classical psychoanalysis organizes a technique of exploration and furnishes general sequences according to which data can be understood. This paper also suggests that the differences in the rules of clinical understanding have potential consequences for psychoanalysis which manifest themselves in psychoanalytic training and in the capacity for self-analysis.

Dreams↗
PubMed1992

Psychoanalysis and cognitive science: contrasting models of the mind.

Although the relationship between psychoanalysis and cognitive science has begun to be addressed, theorists have not constructed a unifying conceptual framework from which to compare and contrast these disciplines. This paper begins by considering the models of mind of cognitive science, and of classical and contemporary psychoanalysis. It is argued that it is useful to reformulate psychoanalytic constructs in terms of cognitive science models. Psychoanalysts have therefore become, and will continue to be, more cognitivist in their work. Nevertheless, psychoanalytic theory and practice is so fundamental that it constitutes the only starting point for clinical cognitivists. The reformulation of psychoanalysis in cognitivist terms is beneficial for both psychoanalysis and cognitive science. The explanatory power of the cognitivist remodelling of psychoanalysis can, of course, be fully assessed only once it has taken place. This paper encourages that theoretical work to proceed.

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy↗
PubMed2003

Psychoanalysis today.

The paper discusses the precarious position of psychoanalysis, a therapeutic approach which historically has defined itself by freedom from constraint and counted treatment length not in terms of number of sessions but in terms of years, in today's era of empirically validated treatments and brief structured interventions. The evidence that exists for the effectiveness of psychoanalysis as a treatment for psychological disorder is reviewed. The evidence base is significant and growing, but less than might meet criteria for an empirically based therapy. The author goes on to argue that the absence of evidence may be symptomatic of the epistemic difficulties that psychoanalysis faces in the context of 21st century psychiatry, and examines some of the philosophical problems faced by psychoanalysis as a model of the mind. Finally some changes necessary in order to ensure a future for psychoanalysis and psychoanalytic therapies within psychiatry are suggested.

Journal Article↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Psychoanalysis and science-theoretical critique--new aspects of an old controversy].

Up to now, relations between psychoanalysis and philosophy of science have mainly been confined to controversies about the scientific status of psychoanalysis. Freud himself had tried to reject classifications of psychoanalysis as a non- or pseudoscience by maintaining a sort of foundationist empiricism, which is philosophically problematic in several respects. The discussion of one classical (Popper) and one recent (Grünbaum) critique of psychoanalysis shows that the arguments are still broadly determined by Freuds own philosophical prejudice. It is then argued that a coherentist philosophy of science would allow a more adequate discussion of the problem of the scientific status of psychoanalysis than did classical foundationism.

Freudian Theory↗
PubMed1995

Ethical and unethical conduct in psychoanalysis. Correlations between logic, ethics and science.

This paper, written by a logician and two psychoanalysts, deals with the existence of logical relationships between ethics and psychoanalysis, which can be expressed as propositions. With a view to focusing the discussion on this point, the authors have deliberately abstained from any polemics concerning the scientific status of psychoanalysis, and concentrate on a consideration of the ethical implications of the conduct of psychoanalysts in the exercise of their profession. In this approach, the theoretical statements and technical rules of psychoanalysis as manifested in its daily practice inevitably have connexions with metaethics and normative ethics. The authors discuss in turn the ethical classification of human conduct, the classes of ethical propositions, the problem of means, ends and values, and the concrete ethical questions raised by the practice of psychoanalysis. Their argument is based on consideration of the existence of empirical, pure ethical and mixed ethical statements, analogous to the familiar categories of empirical, theoretical and mixed statements, or rules of correspondence. Mixed ethical statements are deemed to serve as new rules of correspondence, whereby logical bridges could be constructed between the factual aspect of psychoanalysis and pure ethical statements. If this approach is valid, a sufficient foundation exists to express views on the ethical characteristics of psychoanalytic conduct.

Countertransference↗
PubMed2002

American pragmatism and American psychoanalysis.

The author compares American pragmatism with American psychoanalysis in an effort to place the existence of the many diverse schools and theories of psychoanalysis in a historical context. Pragmatism is seen as a theory of instrumentation or a collection of tools for accomplishing goals; it claims that many of our efforts to know and seek truth are based upon myths. Psychoanalysis, too, can be seen to pursue certain theoretical claims based on myths. The present climate of pluralism in psychoanalysis is not a phase, but an indication of our diverse ways of achieving in-depth understanding of another person.

History, 20th Century↗
PubMed2000

Britain on the couch: the popularization of psychoanalysis in Britain 1918-1940.

Despite the enormous historical attention psychoanalysis has attracted, its popularization in Britain (as opposed to the United States) in the wake of the Great War has been largely overlooked. The present paper explores the sources and fate of the sudden "craze" for psychoanalysis after 1918, examining the content of the books through which the doctrine became widely known, along with the roles played by religious interests and the popular press. The percolation of Freudian and related language into everyday English was effectively complete by the 1930s. Crucially, it is argued that in Britain the character of psychoanalytic theory itself demonstrably converged with the psychological needs of the British population in the postwar period. The situation in Britain was clearly different in many respects from that in the United States. This episode bears on numerous questions about scientific popularization, the distinctiveness of British psychoanalysis, and though it is treated here only peripherally the epistemological status or nature of psychoanalysis. More generally the present paper may be read as an exercise in reflexive disciplinary historiography, in which the levels of discipline ("Psychology") and subject matter ("psychology") are viewed as interpenetrating and mutually constitutive.

History, 20th Century↗
PubMed2006

[Social psychiatry and psychoanalysis - "immature, jostling and rivaling siblings"?].

AIM: We want to determine the influence of psychoanalysis on social psychiatry today and 30 years ago. METHOD: Systematic analyses of all articles appearing in Psychiatrische Praxis in 1974, 1975, 2004, and 2005. RESULTS: While almost one in five articles referred to psychoanalysis or Freud 30 years ago, currently this hardly occurs at all. CONCLUSION: The social-scientific claims of psychoanalysis often heard in the 1970 s play no role in current social psychiatry. Psychoanalysis is also losing significance as a method of social psychiatric patient care.

Community Psychiatry↗
PubMed1992

[Psychiatry and psychoanalysis--Eugen Bleuler's "dementia praecox or group of schizophrenias" (1911)].

Unlike many psychiatrists around 1900, Eugen Bleuler had a friendly, even partly affirmative attitude towards psychoanalysis. In his famous book "Dementia Praecox or Group of Schizophrenias" (1911) he emphasized the influence of psychoanalysis on his theory about schizophrenia. In this article we describe Bleuler's fundamental thoughts on psychology and psychotherapy in order to look for a special disposition to accept psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysis seemed to him to be one of the most promising attempts to develop a systematic psychotherapy founded on a scientific psychology. In particular, Freud's hypothesis about the wish-fulfilling character of dreams influenced Bleuler's understanding of delusion and other symptoms of schizophrenia.

History, 20th Century↗
PubMed1986

Sartre and psychoanalysis.

Why read Sartre? Such is the question which is addressed in this article. In a series of publications, principally his monumental Being and Nothingness (1943), the French philosopher of existentialism challenged traditional psychoanalysis with his "existential psychoanalysis." It has remained a matter of debate whether Sartre's alternative approach to the analysis of human motivation and behavior has any value for the psychoanalytic therapist or theorist. In recent publications two clinicians, Charles Hanly (1979) and Richard Chessick (1984), who have read Sartre extensively, respond negatively, arguing that there is nothing productive in Sartre's challenge to Freudian psychoanalysis. In this article I would like to take issue with that point of view and argue that there is indeed much to be gained from reading Sartre, that the challenge which he poses to traditional psychoanalytic thinking with his "existential psychoanalysis" is in fact a productive one for the contemporary clinician and theorist.

Austria↗
PubMed1992

The three modes of the science of psychoanalysis.

Three modes of the science of psychoanalysis are identified: (1) the domain mode is established when claim is laid for investigation of a distinctive area of nature for investigation. For psychoanalysis, this territory involves human adaptation, mentation, and communication in the emotional arena. This mode essentially is one in which a scientific spirit is central and gross, qualitative observation the source of data and theory; (2) the statistical mode is characterized by quantification (measurement), prediction, controlled study, and global correlational or probability methods. In general, this mode of science serves to confirm, refute, or revise postulates derived from domain-mode observations. An advanced aspect of this mode is termed stochastics, a form of science that deals with events that are both random and deterministic, and which introduces post hoc mathematical equations that are probabilistic in nature. (3) the formal mode is grounded in moment-to-moment observations (time-series data); its results are defined entirely through mathematical treatments of quantified data. The unique quest in this mode is for laws of nature. Each mode of the science of psychoanalysis is discussed for its actual and potential contributions to the field and for its limitations and pitfalls. Finally, the paper discusses aspects of recent research that has, we believe, established a heretofore absent formal mode of science for the field of psychoanalysis.

Female↗
PubMed2006

The dilemma of contemporary psychoanalysis: toward a "knowing" post-postmodernism.

It is in the best interest of psychoanalysis that new schools of thought (earlier examples of which are the classical, Kleinian, and self psychological perspectives) evolve. Generating a new school of thought, however, is almost impossible in this postmodern era. The postmodern paradigm in psychoanalysis (intersubjectivity, dialectical constructivism, two-person psychology) does not strive to generate a "true" theory of mind that claims to fit reality, nor does it claim to be another school of thought. The creators of the classical, interpersonal, self psychological, ego psychological, Kleinian, Bionian, Fairbairnian, Winnicottian, and other schools cannot be postmodernists, for they all believed that their theories corresponded to reality and were therefore true. A shortage of analysts who "know the truth" today will make it extremely difficult for new schools of thought to arise in psychoanalysis, or for new and compelling theories and descriptions of the human psyche to be constructed. What is required is for pluralistic psychoanalytic institutions to empower analysts who are actively involved in the pursuit of new ideas and theories in psychoanalysis.

Humans↗
PubMed1988

Psychoanalysis, psychoanalytic science, and psychoanalytic research--1986.

The present standing of psychoanalysis as a science and the vitality of psychoanalytic research effort are reviewed. The two are interdependent, since the possibilities for empirical research rest on the necessary assumption that psychoanalysis is indeed enough a science to be susceptible to knowledge advance by the (research) methods of science. Concerning our status as a science, I review attacks on our scientific credentials (both from within our ranks and without) by the logical positivists, by the hermeneuticists (a rubric comprising a variety of hermeneutic, phenomenological, exclusively subjectivistic, and/or linguistically based conceptualizations of our field), and the most recent by the philosopher of science, Adolf Grünbaum. I try to demonstrate what I feel to be the failure of each of these assaults, and why I feel there is no reason to see psychoanalysis as anything other than a scientific psychology and, therefore, in theory amenable to empirical research approaches. I then review the history and the current status of these systematic research efforts in psychoanalysis, and the reasons why these have been far less in scope and in accomplishment than has been possible or than has been needed. Here I have focused especially on research involving technique and our theory of change and cure--i.e., research on the analytic process; on what changes take place (outcome) and how those changes come about or are brought about (process).

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed1990

How wide is the widening scope of psychoanalysis and how solid is its structural model? Some concerns and observations.

The author advances the thesis that in the past 35 years there has been a relatively silent but nonetheless significant movement within the mainstream of American psychoanalysis toward a more "modest" position. This movement has been stimulated from different sources, sometimes with diverse goals and different programs. One determinant was the reaction to the post-World War II euphoria in regard to psychoanalysis and its possible therapeutic powers. Another element has been the ongoing consolidation of our knowledge and understanding of the ego-psychological, structural-model approach to analytic theory and technique, an approach which emphasizes both intrapsychic conflict and compromise formations. A consequence of this more modest position has been a greater appreciation of the limitations of psychoanalysis as well as the significance of those limitations. This more realistic appraisal of psychoanalysis may not have encouraged the widening scope of the indications for analysis, but the enhanced understanding of its limitations offers the promise of more effective psychoanalytic work in areas that have not been considered ideal for the so-called "traditional" analysis. It is suggested that more sophisticated approaches in the analysis of resistance and character, of "conflict" (in distinction to "diagnoses"), together with a more applicable understanding of the psychoanalytic process, can all contribute to a deepening, if not necessarily widening, of our psychoanalytic endeavors.

Humans↗
PubMed1993

The current status of psychoanalysis.

Presented here is an overview of current challenges and controversies regarding psychoanalysis as a science, competing psychoanalytic theories, convergent and divergent trends in psychoanalytic technique, psychoanalytic education, psychoanalysis as a profession. Among other issues stressed are the importance of the relation of psychoanalysis to the University, the research implications of competing theoretical and technical orientations, the need to reexamine the structure of psychoanalytic education, and the importance of international cross-fertilization in expanding the application of psychoanalysis to other fields.

Accreditation↗