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PubMed2005

Interpopulation differences in exudate feeding of pygmy marmosets in Ecuadorian Amazonia.

Local variations in fruit- and leaf-eating have been reported for some primate species; however, similar variations in exudate-feeding of pygmy marmosets, one of the most specialized neotropical primate species, have not been studied. In our 3-year study of four populations of pygmy marmosets in northeastern Ecuador, we characterized their exudate-feeding behavior by describing the use of exudate sources. We tested whether the use of exudate species was related to ecological factors such as the availability of exudate species in an area. We estimated the daily activity budgets of the groups with 1-hr scan samples and found significant interpopulation differences in the time spent on exudate feeding. We recorded a total of 18 exudate species used in the four populations; however, the populations differed in the total number of species used and in the preferred species. The most commonly used plant species were Sterculia apetala at San Pablo, Cedrela odorata at Sacha, Inga marginata at Amazoonico, and Parkia balslevii at Zancudo. We recorded the presence and abundance of the 18 exudate species in 90-m transects in the home range of each group and in one additional control area that contained no marmosets, for each population. Differences in the most-used exudate species among populations did not appear to be related to the availability of these species in each population, i.e., the marmosets did not use at random the exudate species available within their range, nor did they use more often the exudate species that were more abundant in their home ranges. One implication of our results for conservation is that protecting exudate resources based on data from only one area will not be sufficient to preserve pygmy marmosets in all populations.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Rhythmicity of torpor in a marsupial hibernator, the mountain pygmy-possum (Burramys parvus), under natural and laboratory conditions.

Circadian rhythms have been observed in most mammals, but their importance and function remain controversial with respect to daily cycles during hibernation. We investigated the timing of arousals from and entries into hibernation for both free-living and captive mountain pygmy-possums (Burramys parvus). Under both natural and laboratory conditions most arousals and entries were entrained with the light-dark cycle. Entries occurred mainly during the night and arousals preferably around dusk, which coincides with the onset of the normal activity phase for the nocturnal pygmy-possums. This entrainment prevailed throughout the hibernation season although only the laboratory animals were constantly subjected to photoperiodic stimuli, whereas under natural conditions hibernacula are shielded from photic cues and diurnal temperature fluctuations. Nevertheless, possums left their hibernacula frequently throughout winter and were occasionally trapped close to the snow surface suggesting that during the periods of post-arousal normothermia they can be exposed to environmental stimuli. It thus appears that the synchronisation with the photocycle was governed by a temperature-compensated circadian clock which was reset periodically during short activity periods. For the mountain pygmy-possum, entrainment with the photocycle probably has two functions: 1. Entrainment ensures that foraging bouts during the hibernation season remain synchronised with the dark phase. 2. Information about the prevailing climatic conditions sampled during short activity periods enables them to time final spring emergence from hibernation when snow melt begins and ensures that the breeding season can commence as early as possible.

Animals↗
PubMed1990

Meal patterns of pygmy goats fed hay and concentrate ad lib.

The meal patterns of pygmy goats fed hay and pelleted concentrate ad lib were recorded and analyzed. The pygmy goats consumed 8 hay meals [6 during the light phase (= light)/2 during the dark phase (= dark)] and 10 concentrate meals (7 during light/3 during dark) during 24 hr (12 hr light/12 hr dark). Sixty-two percent of hay and 74% of concentrate intake occurred during light. Total 24-hr hay (280 g) and concentrate (264 g) intakes were similar, but concentrate was preferred during dark. Concentrate meals were smaller during light than during dark. The mean feeding rate (g/min) within meals for both hay and concentrate was higher during dark than during light. Meal size and duration of postmeal interval were positively correlated for concentrate but not for hay. No significant positive correlation was found between meal size and duration of premeal interval. Separate analysis of diurnal and nocturnal meals indicated that the postmeal correlation for concentrate was evident primarily during dark. The results demonstrate that food intake in pygmy goats shows distinct diurnal variations and suggest that food intake in ruminants is regulated from meal to meal, with different factors prevailing during light and dark.

Animal Feed↗
PubMed1991

Ultrasonic biparietal diameter of second trimester Pygmy goat fetuses.

Four does pregnant with seven Pygmy goat fetuses were scanned transabdominally from Day 36 to Day 102 of gestation using a real-time ultrasound 5 MHz linear-array scanhead. Fetal biparietal diameter (BPD) was measured on symmetrical frozen images using internal electronic calipers. The relationship between gestational age (GA) in days and BPD in millimeters in Pygmy goat fetuses is expressed as: [GA = 23.2 + 2.08 BPD]. This equation can assign GA to Pygmy goat fetuses of unknown conception dates and allow confinement of does near kidding for induced or observed parturition. Mean kid birthweight was 2.0 + 0.45 kg SEM. These observations are consistent with relationships which have been determined for Toggenburg, Nubian and Angora goat fetuses.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1985

Hibernation in pygmy possums (Marsupialia: Burramyidae).

The minimum body temperatures and the longest torpor bouts recorded for pygmy possums (family Burramyidae) are compared with hibernating representatives from the insectivores, rodents and Australian bats. The lowest body temperatures of pygmy possums are around 6 degrees C which is within the range of the other mammalian groups. The torpor bouts of the pygmy possums last up to two weeks and the durations are similar to those of eutherian hibernators.

Animals↗
PubMed1986

Intramitochondrial inclusions in the kidney of the pygmy mouse.

Intramitochondrial inclusions averaging 1000 A in diameter were observed in the cells of the proximal convoluted tubules in samples of kidneys from pygmy mice, Baiomys taylori. Electron microscopic study of unstained sections and mitochondrial fractions showed that these inclusions are lipid and found at a S.G. 1.37 in a linear sucrose gradient. Renal glycogen, inorganic phosphate and plasma sodium were significantly higher in the pygmy mouse and plasma calcium was lower, as compared with the laboratory mouse. We believe these intramitochondrial inclusions to be lipid which accumulates divalent cations, particularly calcium, which acts as a sodium pump allowing the pygmy mouse to conserve water and adapt to its environment.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

HIV type 1 infection in Pygmy hunter gatherers is from contact with Bantu rather than from nonhuman primates.

To investigate the route of zoonotic transmission of HIV-1, we isolated three and seven HIV-1 strains from 449 Pygmy hunter gatherers and 169 neighboring Bantu, respectively, in southern Cameroon. Phylogenetic analysis based on pol-integrase and env-C2V3 sequences revealed that strains from Pygmies were 1CRF02_AG/CRF02_AG, 1 subtype G/CRF02 AG (pol/env), and 1 CRFll_cpx/CRF11_cpx, and that those from Bantu were 2 CRF02_AG/CRF02_AG, 1 CRF02_AG/CRF01_AE/A, 1 CRF02_AG/subtype A, 1 G/A, 1G/CRF02_AG, and 1 unclassified fH. CRF02_AG and CRF11_cpx have been identified in Cameroon. The results suggest that HIV-1 has been introduced into Pygmies through their neighboring Bantu rather than directly from nonhuman primates.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Shallow mtDNA coalescence in Atlantic pygmy angelfishes (genus Centropyge) indicates a recent invasion from the Indian Ocean.

Pygmy angelfishes (genus Centropyge) are widespread and species-rich in the Indo-Pacific, but only three species are recognized in the Atlantic: Centropyge resplendens on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, Centropyge argi in the Caribbean, and Centropyge aurantonotus in Brazil and the southern Caribbean. Atlantic species are distinguished only by color patterns and are very similar to Centropyge acanthops (Cac) in the western Indian Ocean, raising the possibility that pygmy angelfish recently invaded the Atlantic Ocean via southern Africa. To test this zoogeographic hypothesis, we compared a 454-bp segment of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control region among pygmy angelfishes of the subgenus Xiphypops, which includes the three Atlantic species, the Indian Ocean species, and an Indo-Pacific species [Centropyge fisheri (Cfi)]. The Indian Ocean species Cac is closest to the Atlantic species (d = 0.059) relative to Cfi (d = 0.077). The mtDNA genealogy indicates a colonization pathway from the Indian Ocean directly to the West Atlantic, followed by at least two waves of dispersal to the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The gene tree for the three Atlantic species is polyphyletic, raising questions about taxonomic assignments based on color pattern. Mismatch distributions place Atlantic founder events and population expansions at about 250,000-500,000 years ago. Estimates of effective female population sizes from mismatch and coalescence analyses are consistent with founder events by tens of individuals in the western Atlantic, followed by expansions to several million individuals.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

How did pygmy shrews colonize Ireland? Clues from a phylogenetic analysis of mitochondrial cytochrome b sequences.

There is a long-standing debate as to how Ireland attained its present fauna; we help to inform this debate with a molecular study of one species. A 1110 base pair fragment of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene was sequenced in 74 specimens of the pygmy shrew, Sorex minutus, collected from throughout its western Palaearctic range. Phylogenetic analysis of these sequences revealed several well-supported lineages. Most of the 65 haplotypes belonged to a northern lineage, which ranged from Britain in the west to Lake Baikal in the east. The other lineages were largely limited to Iberia, Italy and the Balkans. One exception, however, was a lineage found in both Ireland and Andorra. This affinity, and the large difference between the mitochondrial sequences of Irish and British individuals, suggest that pygmy shrews did not colonize Ireland via a land connection from Britain, as has been previously supposed, but instead were introduced by boat from southwest continental Europe. All the Irish pygmy shrews analysed were identical or very similar in cytochrome b sequence, suggesting an extreme founding event.

Animals↗
PubMed1982

Exploration and mating range in African Pygmies.

The distributions of exploration range and of mating range were studied among Aka Pygmies of the Central African Republic. Exploration range is defined and methods of estimation for single individuals suggested. A simple exponential distribution is found for individual Aka Pygmies, with variation of exploration range (the parameter defining mobility) with sex, age and ethnic affiliation. Distribution of distances from birthplace and place of residence are compared and show modest differences. The frequency of visits to a given place has also been studied. The average distance between birthplaces of mates is very similar to the mean exploration range. Correlations between individual exploration and mating ranges suggest that it is the male who may be choosing a marriage partner among Pygmies. A theory by Boyce, Küchemann & Harrison (1967) on the relations between "neighbourhood knowledge" and mating distance is inapplicable because of its reliance on the Pareto distribution, which does not apply in the present case, and of other unnecessary assumptions, but the general principle of a close relationship between exploratory activity and mating distance seems valid, at least in the present case. Suggestions are made for causes for the difference between the present distributions and those with other shapes observed in less primitive economies.

Adult↗
PubMed1998

Effects of histamine H1 receptors on the feeding and drinking patterns in pygmy goats.

The goal of these experiments was to determine which histamine receptors are involved in the relationship between drinking and feeding in ruminants. To this end, the effects of the histamine receptor antagonists dexbrompheniramine (H1 receptor antagonist), cimetidine (H2 receptor antagonist), and terfenadine (H1 receptor antagonist) on feeding and drinking patterns of pygmy goats were investigated. Two experiments using dexbrompheniramine [1 and 2 mg/kg of body weight (BW)0.75], two experiments using cimetidine (16 and 32 mg/kg of BW0.75), and two experiments using terfenadine (5 and 11.5 mg/kg of BW0.75) were performed to assess the type and location (periphery or central nervous system) of the histamine receptors involved in the mediation of prandial drinking by pygmy goats. The H1 receptor antagonists dexbrompheniramine (2 mg/kg of BW0.75) and terfenadine (11.5 mg/kg of BW0.75) significantly reduced water intake, but cumulative feed intake did not change. Consequently, the ratio of water intake to feed intake decreased. In contrast, the H2 receptor antagonist did not affect either water or feed intake. Dexbrompheniramine at 2 mg/kg of BW0.75 and terfenadine at 11.5 mg/kg of BW0.75 also decreased draft frequency and decreased the water intake associated with meals. Results showed that blockage of peripheral H1 histamine receptors attenuates the association between water and feed intake in pygmy goats. Therefore, the stimulating effect of feed intake on water intake appears to depend on activation of peripheral H1 histamine receptors.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

[Allozyme variation of the pygmy wood mouse Sylvaemus uralensis (Rodentia, Muridae) and estimation of the divergence of its chromosome forms].

The genetic divergence between the eastern European, southern European, and Asian chromosome forms of the pygmy wood mouse Sylvaemus uralensis, whose karyotypes differ from one another in the amount of pericentromeric heterochromatin, has been reevaluated using allozyme analysis. In general, Asian S. uralensis living in eastern Kazakhstan, eastern Turkmenistan (the Kugitang Ridge), and Uzbekistan are more monomorphic than European populations of this species. However, the allozyme differences between all chromosome forms of the pygmy wood mouse is comparable with the interpopulation differences within each form and are an order of magnitude smaller than those between "good" species of the genus Sylvaemus. Thus, the chromosome forms of S. uralensis cannot be considered to be separate species. The concept of races as large population groups that have not diverged enough to regard them as species but differ from one another in some genetic characters is used to describe the differentiation of S. uralensis forms more adequately. The currently available evidence suggests the existence of two S. uralensis races, the Asian and the European ones, and two chromosome forms (eastern and western) of the European race. The possible historical factors that have determined the formation of the races of the pygmy wood mouse are considered. According to the most plausible hypothesis, the shift and fragmentation of the broad-leaved forest zone during the most recent glacial period (late Pleistocene) were the crucial factors of the formation of these races, because they resulted in a prolonged isolation of the European and Asian population groups of S. uralensis from each other.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

[Variability in size of the nuclear genome in pygmy wood mouse Sylvaemus uralensis (Rodentia, Muridae)].

Earlier, in an integral genetic study, the Asian and European races were distinguished within the species Sylvaemus uralensis (pygmy wood mouse) and the European race was divided into the East European and South European forms. Each of these groups differed from the others, in particular, in the quantity of the centromeric heterochromatin in karyotypes of the animals. To establish the pattern of its changes in S. uralensis, in the present study the DNA content in splenocyte nuclei in all races and forms of pygmy wood mice was assessed using DNA flow cytometry. The heterochromatin amount in karyotypes and genome size were shown to be correlated. The East European chromosomal race of S. uralensis (Central Chernozem and Non-Chernozem regions of Russia, Crimea Peninsula, Middle Volga region, and Southern Ural) and the Asian race of this species (East Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and East Turkmenistan), which have respectively the highest and the lowest amounts of centromeric heterochromatin in the karyotype, exhibit the greatest difference in the DNA content in the genome. On average, the difference is approximately 8% in males and 6.7% in females; in both cases, the ranges of variability were distinctly different. Against the general background of the trait variation, the Asian race, whose members have the smallest DNA amount in their cells, looks homogeneous. The genome of the South European chromosomal form of S. uralensis (Caucasus, Transcaucasia, Carpathians, and Balkan Peninsula), which exhibits an intermediate content of the centromeric heterochromatin in the karyotype, is smaller that the genome of the East European race (by 3.2% in the group of males and by 1.9%, in the group of females), but larger than that of the Asian race (by 5% in either sex). Thus, the variability of size of centromeric C-blocks in pygmy wood mouse is likely to be associated with elimination (or, conversely, an increase in the amount) of the genetically inert chromatin. It is suggested that a significant contribution to the variability of genome size in S. uralensis is made by heterochromosomes, or, more precisely, their variable regions, which seem to be largely heterochromatic.

Animals↗
PubMed1985

[Becoming sedentary, acculturation and infectious diseases: socio-ecological problems of the Bayaka Pygmies].

The falling of tropical rain forests in Equatorial Africa, and the subsequent penetration of Bantu hoe farmers into the former jungle regions are depriving the Pygmies of the basis for their traditional way of life as roaming hunters and gatherers. Most of the former roaming groups now live in permanent settlements near Bantu villages. But becoming sedentary and adapting to the habits of the Bantu have had catastrophic results for the Pygmies: today, this people suffers to a great extent from infectious diseases and animal parasites, which were once almost unknown among them. In particular, Yaws, a skin disease which is widespread in Africa affects whole tribes. With the loss of their cultural identity their social structure also collapses: formerly free Pygmies get employed as cheap labour on coffee plantations.

Acculturation↗
PubMed1977

Serum proteins and protein electrophoretic pattern in normal pygmy goats.

The values of total protein and protein electrophoretic patterns for pygmy goats were studied to establish normal basic values. The values obtained in the present study were as follows: alpha1-globulin, 0.6 +/- 0.1 mg/dl; alpha2-globulin, 1.0 +/- 0.3 mg/dl; beta-globulin, 0.5 +/- 0.1 mg/dl; gamma-globulin, 1.6 +/- 0.1 mg/dl; total protein, 7.3 +/- 0.7 mg/dl; albumin, 3.2 +/- 0.6 mg/dl; A/G ratio, 0.8 +/- 0.3 mg/dl; and globulin, 4.5 +/- 0.6 mg/dl. Goats were divided into groups on the basis of age and sex to determine if any significant differences were present in these groups. Of the 8 variables studied, only albumin and A/G ratio showed significantly different values due to sex; castrated males showed significantly lower values than thos for intact males and females (P less than 0.05). Also, A/G ratio values for females and castrated male pygmy goats were significantly lower than those for intact males (P less than 0.05). Total serum protein values studied in female pygmy goats at various ages were also significantly different (P less than 0.05).

Aging↗
PubMed1997

High frequency of the apolipoprotein E *4 allele in African pygmies and most of the African populations in sub-Saharan Africa.

Apolipoprotein E genotypes (alleles *2, *3, and *4) have been determined in 70 Aka Pygmies and 470 unrelated African sub-Saharan subjects. Allele frequencies for Pygmies are 5.7% for APOE*2, 53.6% for APOE*3, and 40.7% for APOE*4, and the global proportions for sub-Saharan subjects are 11.6% for APOE*2, 70.6% for APOE*3, and 17.8% for APOE*4. The frequencies in some ethnic groups are statistically different from the overall mean in the Afar and the Isa, the Ewe (Togo), the Malinke (Guinea), and the Mossi; three ethnic groups have a higher allele frequency of APOE*4 (Fon, 29.4%; Zairians, 33.3%; Tutsi, 38.5%). The APOE*4 allele is considered the ancestral form because of its high frequency in African Pygmies and other aboriginal populations.

Africa South of the Sahara↗
PubMed1997

Ovarian function of pygmy marmoset daughters (Cebuella pygmaea) in intact and motherless families.

Reproductive inhibition of subordinate Callitrichid group members has been shown to vary with genus; whereas female Leontopithecus subordinates have normal ovarian cycles and occasionally breed within groups, subordinate Saguinus females almost never do so, with Callithrix species showing intermediate levels of reproductive inhibition. No information has been available on patterns of reproduction or inhibition in subordinate females in the genus Cebuella. We assessed fertility in Cebuella pygmaea daughters to allow comparison with the remaining Callitrichid genera. Specifically, the project had two goals: 1) to determine if there was evidence of reproductive inhibition of daughters living in family groups, and 2) to compare the ovarian function of daughters living in intact family groups with that of daughters residing in motherless families (i.e., without the breeding female). We collected daily urine samples for 6-8 weeks from eight pygmy marmoset daughters living in intact family groups or motherless families. Determination of ovulatory cycling or reproductive quiescence depended on the hormonal profiles generated from urinary luteinizing hormone and pregnanediol-3-glucuronide concentrations. All females in the motherless condition (aged 13-30 months) (n = 4) ovulated during the study. In contrast, only one of four daughters (aged 13-20 months) residing in intact families was found to be cycling. Data from motherless groups indicate ovarian cycling may begin between 15 and 17 months of age. Reproductive inhibition occurs in pygmy marmosets, although in a pattern more similar to Callithrix than to other Callitrichid genera.

Age Factors↗
PubMed2000

Genetic variation at the ApoB 3' HVR minisatellite locus in the Mbenzele Pygmies from the Central African Republic.

This study analyzes the polymorphic minisatellite ApoB 3' HVR in the Mbenzele Pygmies from the Central African Republic. A total of 14 alleles was observed, with frequencies ranging from 0.020 (19, 21, 27, and 45 repeat unit alleles) to 0.210 (37 repeat unit allele). Departure from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium was not statistically significant. The estimated heterozygosity was 0.874 +/- 0.016. Taking data from the literature into consideration, the results support the hypothesis that the Africans are different from non-Africans due to greater ApoB 3' HVR genetic diversity and a unimodal profile of ApoB 3' HVR allele frequency distribution. Interpopulational relationships were also analyzed using an F(ST) based genetic distance. The results highlight the similarity between the Mbenzele Pygmies and Bantu-speaking groups (Ewondo and Zulu), and the divergence between the Mbenzele and San, the two groups which are often considered to be the most direct descendants of proto-Africans. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 12:588-592, 2000. Copyright 2000 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Journal Article↗