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PubMed1999

Structural comparison of cephalopod hemocyanins: phylogenetic significance.

Hemocyanins, the respiratory molecules of cephalopod mollusks, are hollow cylinders with five internal arches. Three hemocyanins representative of three orders of cephalopods (Benthoctopus species, Octopoda; Vampyroteuthis infernalis, Vampyromorpha; Sepia officinalis, Sepioidea) were subjected to cryoelectron microscopy and three-dimensional (3D) reconstruction. The structure of Benthoctopus hemocyanin, solved at 26.4-A resolution, possesses arches comprising two identical functional units. The similarity between these functional units and the structure recently observed in X-ray crystallography for Octopus by Cuff et al. (J. Mol. Biol., 1998, 232, 522-529) allows the identification of their N- and C-terminal domains in the 3D reconstruction volume. Conversely, arches present in the 3D reconstruction volume of Sepia hemocyanin (21.8 A resolution) contain four functional units that are disposed differently. The strong resemblance between the reconstruction volumes of Vampyroteuthis (21.4-A resolution) and Benthoctopus hemocyanins suggests that Sepioidea diverged from a group containing Octopoda and Vampyromorpha.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

The molecular phylogeny of five eastern north Pacific octopus species.

The DNA sequence of a 612-nucleotide fragment of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit III gene from five Octopus species has been determined. The COIII gene in these species shows an extreme bias against G in the DNA sense strand with a moderately low C composition. The bias against G and C severely restricts the codon usage in Octopus COIII genes. The aligned DNA sequences were subjected to distance, maximum-likelihood, and parsimony analyses to ascertain the phylogenetic relationship of the species. The results of all of the analyses were concordant. The analyses indicate that O. bimaculoides and O. bimaculatus are the least diverged of the species and fall into a separate clade from O. dolfleini and O. californicus, which are also closely related. O. rubescens is about equally removed from the other species, but parsimony, distance, maximum-likelihood, and logdet analyses suggest that it is more closely aligned with the O. bimaculoides/O. bimaculatus lineage.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed1982

Histochemical evidence for catecholamines as neurotransmitters in the statocyst of Octopus vulgaris.

Formaldehyde-induced fluorescence (Falck-Hillarp technique) provided histochemical evidence for the presence of catecholamines in the sensory epithelia (macula and crista) of the Octopus statocyst. A specific bright green fluorescence occurred in the neuronal plexus beneath the receptor cell layers of the epithelia and in the appropriate nerves. The histochemical findings are discussed with reference to the well-known neuronal and synaptic organization of the epithelia and to relevant results in cephalopods as well as in other molluscs. All data support the hypothesis that in the receptor systems of the Octopus statocyst catecholamines (probably dopamine and/or noradrenaline) act as neurotransmitters in the efferent fibre system.

Animals↗
PubMed1983

Aminergic innervation of the blood vessels of Octopus vulgaris.

Evidence is presented from fluorescence histochemistry studies that blood vessels in the viscera of octopus vulgaris are innervated by nerve fibres containing catecholamines. This, with other evidence, suggests that cephalopods, like vertebrates, may be capable of regulating their peripheral vasculature by central neural control.

Animals↗
PubMed1985

Electron-microscopic observations of the gravity receptor epithelia of normal and spinner juvenile Octopus maya.

Light and electron microscopy of the gravity receptor epithelia (maculae) of statocysts of normal and "spinner" juvenile Octopus maya showed differences between the structures of the hair cells, supporting cells, and afferent neurons of these cephalopods. The maculae of spinner animals were approximately 30% smaller in their surface area and had 40% fewer hair cells. Moreover, the average distance between randomly-chosen hair bundles in scanning electron micrographs of maculae of normal animals was significantly greater (4.33 +/- 6.47 microns) than those of maculae of spinner animals (3.38 +/- 4.90 microns; P less than 0.0001). The sectional area of the supporting cell's microvilli in spinner maculae was larger (0.16 +/- 0.18 microns) than those of normal (0.10 +/- 0.10 micron; P less than 0.0001) O. maya. The morphological differences observed between certain structural components of the maculae of normal and spinner O. maya may be related to the absence and/or malformation of the neuroepithelial suprastructures in spinners. This may have direct or indirect effects to their inability to orient to gravity with these organs.

Acoustic Maculae↗
PubMed1975

An electron microscopic radioautographic study of the uptake of tritiated serotonin by nerve fibres in the posterior salivary duct and gland of cephalopods.

In the posterior salivary duct and gland of Octopus vulgaris and of Eledone cirrhosa, the duct secretory nerve trunks and their ramifications in the gland tubules include many fibres that incorporate labelled serotonin. However, there are also unlabelled secretory fibres, which cannot be discriminated from incorporating fibres on morphological grounds. Neuroglandular junctions are not apparently established by incorporating fibres. In the duct, the motor nerve trunks contain a small number of labelled fibres, and nerve bundles supplying the duct muscle contain, in variable proportions, serotonin incorporating fibres. Both labelled and unlabelled nerve fibres reach the duct muscle fibres, but neuromuscular junctions involve only unlabelled presynaptic fibres. The nerve fibres which join the gland muscle are usually unlabelled, and the small quota of incorporating fibres in the motor trunks apparently supply only duct tissues. Both secretory and motor trunks, originating from different ganglia, can be considered to contain heterogeneous fibres, releasing different neurotransmitters at the terminals. Certain of these fibres could be serotoninergic.

Animals↗
PubMed1977

Neuronal and synaptic organization in the gravity receptor system of the statocyst of Octopus vulgaris.

The neuronal and synaptic organization of the sensory epithelium (macula) of the gravity receptor system of Octopus vulgaris was investigated by serial electron microscopic reconstruction. Three different types of afferent neurons, unipolar, bipolar, and multipolar, are described. Afferent synapses exist between the secondary sensory cells (hair cells) and the afferent neurons. Consequently, the neurons are first-order neurons. Two morphologically distinct types of afferent synapses could be identified: the most common type, present on every hair cell, has a finger-like postsynaptic process; the second type, which does not occur on every hair cell, has a flat or somewhat curved postsynaptic process. As a rule, the hair cells each form synapses with more than one afferent neuron. The neurons, in turn, form synapses with more than one hair cell. A complicated arrangement of efferent synapses was found at the level of both the hair cells and the neurons. The results are discussed with reference to their physiological consequences.

Animals↗
PubMed1977

Secondary sensory cells in the gravity receptor system of the statocyst of Octopus vulgaris.

The presence of secondary sensory cells in the Octopus gravity receptor system has been demonstrated. In serial thin sections of the receptor cells (hair cells) no axons were found leaving the cells. Instead, synapses were observed with synaptic vesicles lying inside the receptor cells. Both data clearly indicate that the receptor hair cells represent secondary sensory cells. In addition, efferent contacts to the receptor cells could be confirmed.

Animals↗
PubMed1976

The cells that secrete the beaks in octopods and squids (Mollusca, Cephalopoda).

A single layer of cell secrets the hard cephalopod beaks. The beccublasts are tall columnar cells that separate the beak from the surrounding buccal muscles, and must serve to attach these muscles to the beak. Within the cell layer there are three types of cells. The first, and most frequently found contain cell-long fibrils. These fibrils may have contractile and tensile properties. Complex trabeculae extend from the beccublasts into the matrix of the beak. The fibrils are attached to these trabeculae and at the other end of the cells they are anchored near to the beccublast-muscle cell interface, closely associated with the muscles that move the beak. The second group of cells contain masses of endoplasmic reticulum the cysternae of which are arranged along the long axis of the cell. These cells also contain dense granules and are probably the major source of beak hard tissue. It is probable that each cell secretes its own column of beak hard tissue. The third group of cells cells contains a mixture of fibrils and secretory tissue. In the beccublast layer there are changes in the proportion of the three types of cells depending upon the region sampled. In the region where growth is most active there are mostly secretory cells, whereas near the biting and wearing tip there are mainly anchoring type cells.

Animals↗
PubMed1975

Ciliated sensory cells and associated neurons in the lip of Octopus joubini Robson.

The lip of Octopus joubini is a fleshy fold around the beak that is subdivided distally into finger-like papillae and overlayed by an uninterrupted noncellular cuticle. The muscular core of the lip has a high proportion of nervous tissue. The simple epithelium contains numerous ciliated sensory cells, especially in the papillae. In many of these cells the cilia lie deep within the cytoplasm and usually appear to extend toward the surface. Receptors with intracellular cilia also lie below the epithelium and send dendrites bearing cilia to the surface. Large unipolar interneurons that may receive synapses from the ciliated receptors lie in the musculature near the papillae. The sensory system of the octopus lip is more advanced than that of the squid, and it is very similar to that of Sepia. The relationship of these findings to the phylogeny and ecology of cephalopods is discussed.

Animals↗
PubMed1979

Relationship between photoreceptor terminations and centrifugal neurons in the optic lobe of octopus.

Retinal bundles, connecting the retina of the octopus to the ipsilateral optic lobe, contain both retinal photoreceptor axons that terminate in the optic lobe and centrifugal axons whose cell bodies lie within the lobe. Staining axonal elements in proximal stubs of individual retinal bundles by cobalt diffusion and subsequent sulphide treatment reveals the topographic relationship between afferent terminals and centrifugal cell bodies. At the outer border of the plexiform layer, stained terminal bags (photoreceptor axon enlargements), an indicator of photoreceptor terminal spread within this layer, overlap stained centrifugal cell bodies located within the inner granule layer. The details of this overlap indicate a dorsoventral representation of each retinal bundle within the optic lobe cortex.

Animals↗
PubMed1980

Reflector cells in the skin of Octopus dofleini.

The cells that form the reflecting layer beneath the chromatophore organs of the octopus are conspicuous elements of its dermal chromatic system. Each flattened, ellipsoidal reflector cell in this layer bears thousands of peripherally radiating, discoidal, reflecting lamellae. Each lamella consists of a proteinaceous reflecting platelet enveloped by the plasmalemma. The lamellae average 90 nm in thickness and have variable diameters with a maximum of about 1.7 micrometer. Sets of reflecting lamellae are organized into functional units called reflectosomes. The lamellae in each reflectosome form a parallel array - similar to a stack of coins. The average number of lamellae in a reflectosome is 11. Adjacent lamellae are uniformly separated by an extracellular gap of about 60 nm in embedded specimens. The reflectosomes are randomly disposed over the surface of the reflector cell. The observed organization of the reflectosomes is compatible with its role as a quarter-wave thin-film interference device. The alternating reflecting lamellae and intelamellar spaces constitute layers of high and low refractive indices. Using measurements of the thicknesses and refractive indices of the platelets and interlamellar spaces, we have calculated that the color of reflected light should be blue - green, as seen in vivo. The sequence of events leading to the definitive arrangement of the reflectosomes is uncertain. The reflector cells of O. dofleini are compared and contrasted with the iridophores of squid.

Animals↗
PubMed1981

Tissue channel morphology in Octopus.

The morphology of tissue channels in muscle and neural tissues of Octopus was investigated, at the ultrastructural level, with a technique involving the precipitation of ferrocyanide ions. The numbers, sizes and conductivities of the channels were estimated from quantitative data. No evidence was gained to indicate that the low microvascular density in Octopus is coupled to an especially extensive network of extravascular channels. The tissue channel system in Octopus appears to be broadly comparable with the mammalian system; a lack of information prevents more appropriate comparisons with marine fishes. Probable functions of tissue channels in Octopus and mammals, and reasons for apparent similarities and differences in the channel organization of these divergent groups, are discussed.

Animals↗
PubMed1983

Histochemical localization of retinochrome and rhodopsin studied by fluorescence microscopy.

Retinochrome is readily reduced by sodium borohydride into an N-retinyl protein that emits visible fluorescence upon irradiation with near-ultraviolet light. Rhodopsin is also converted to a similar fluorescent product, but only when denatured with formaldehyde before reduction. Based upon this difference, retinochrome was discriminated from rhodopsin on frozen sections. The distribution of these two photopigments in various photosensitive tissues was examined by means of epifluorescence microscopy. In the octopus retina (Octopus vulgaris), the yellow-green fluorescence of reduced retinochrome was observed in both the basal regions of the outer segments and throughout the inner segments of the visual cells, while the fluorescence of reduced rhodopsin was restricted to within the rhabdomal layer of the outer segments. In the squid parolfactory vesicles (Todarodes pacificus), rhodopsin was present in the central lumen, which contains the distal processes of the photoreceptor cells, while retinochrome was detected in the myeloid bodies scattered within the vesicular wall. In the slug retina (Limax flavus), rhodopsin was found in the microvilli, and retinochrome appeared to be concentrated in the photic vesicles of the visual cells.

Animals↗
PubMed1986

Photoenergetics of octopus rhodopsin. Convergent evolution of biological photon counters?

The enthalpy changes associated with each of the major steps in the photoconversion of octopus rhodopsin have been measured by direct photocalorimetry. Formation of the primary photoproduct (bathorhodopsin) involves energy uptake of about 130 kJ/mol, corresponding to storage of over 50% of the exciting photon energy, and is comparable to the energy storage previously observed in bovine rhodopsin. Subsequent intermediates involve the step-wise dissipation of this energy to give the physiological end-product (acid metarhodopsin) at a level only slightly above the parent rhodopsin. No significant differences in energetics are observed between rhodopsin in microvilli membrane suspensions or detergent dispersions. Use of different buffer systems in the calorimetric experiments shows that conversion of rhodopsin to acid metarhodopsin involves no light-induced protonation change, whereas alkali metarhodopsin photoproduction occurs with the release of one proton per molecule and an additional enthalpy increase of about 50 kJ/mol. Van't Hoff analysis of the effect of temperature on the reversible metarhodopsin equilibrium gives an enthalpy for the acid----alkali transition consistent with this calorimetric result, and the proton release is confirmed by direct observation of light-induced pH changes. Acid-base titration of metarhodopsin yields an apparent pK of 9.5 for this transition, though the pH profile deviates slightly from ideal titration behaviour. We suggest that a high energy primary photoproduct is an obligatory feature of efficient biological photo-detectors, as opposed to photon energy transducers, and that the similarity at this stage between cephalopod and vertebrate rhodopsins represents either convergent evolution at the molecular level or strong conservation of a crucial functional characteristic.

Animals↗