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PubMed1996

An analysis of errors in the learning, overlearning, and forgetting of sequences.

This paper investigates the effects upon delayed recall of errors made during learning. Subjects learn a sequence of wagons in a model train over repeated presentation and test cycles. The recall of the same sequence is unexpectedly tested one week later. The results show that the errors subjects make during learning are a significant factor in predicting which elements of the sequence are forgotten. Learning is modelled by a population of discrete traces, accumulated during learning, which has two characteristics: First, many of the traces duplicate information encoded in other traces; and second, representations of the correct sequence coexist with traces containing incorrect information about the same elements of the sequence. Forgetting is modelled by the accretion of null traces that compete with correct traces of retrieval and the increasing inability with time to discriminate correct representations in memory from erroneous records. This model is shown to provide a good fit to the experimental results and suggests a strong link between the complete history of learning new material (including errors) and its subsequent likelihood of forgetting.

Attention↗
PubMed1992

Lipreading in patients with schizophrenia.

This study was designed to explore whether schizophrenic patients who are able to maintain their gaze with adequate persistence could competently lip-read. Four lipreading tests, designed to assess recognition of syllables, words, and overlearned sentences, were administered to 15 schizophrenic and 15 normal subjects matched for age, sex, and educational level. The patients proved to be competent lip-readers susceptible to the blend illusion and were inferior only in lipreading of overlearned sentences. The latter difficulty may tentatively be attributed to the inadequacy of the patient's premorbid social network for establishing contextual cues that aid in the recognition of overlearned sentences.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Attention to action in Parkinson's disease: impaired effective connectivity among frontal cortical regions.

The neural basis of attention to action was studied in 12 patients with Parkinson's disease (Hoehn and Yahr grades II and III) and 12 healthy age-matched controls. The subjects were studied by functional MRI (fMRI) during performance of a simple paced overlearned motor sequence task, with and without an additional attentional task. For the attentional task, subjects were instructed to attend either to their actions or to a visual distractor task. Statistical parametric mapping was used to implement a random effects analysis of the regional task-related activations in patient and control populations. Structural equation modelling of fMRI time series was used to measure effective connectivity among prefrontal and premotor areas. In both groups, the motor task was associated with activation of a distributed network including the premotor, motor and parietal cortex, striatum and cerebellum. In control subjects, but not patients, attention to action (relative to execution of an overlearned sequence) was associated with further activation of prefrontal, parietal and paracingulate cortex, and the supplementary motor area (SMA). Patients with Parkinson's disease showed greater than normal activation of the SMA during execution of the simple overlearned motor sequence, but less augmentation when attending to their actions. In control subjects, attention to action, but not attention to the visual distractor task, increased the effective connectivity between prefrontal cortex and both the lateral premotor cortex and the SMA. This represents a specific increase in effective connectivity. Attentional modulation of effective connectivity between the prefrontal, premotor cortex and SMA was not observed in patients. This deficit indicates a context-specific functional disconnection between the prefrontal cortex and the supplementary and premotor cortex in Parkinson's disease.

Aged↗
PubMed2003

Task switching mediates the attentional blink even without backward masking.

When two targets are presented in rapid succession, perception of the second target is impaired at short intertarget lags (100-700 msec). This attentional blink (AB) is thought to occur only when the second target is backward masked. To the contrary, we show that task switching between the targets can produce an AB even without masking (Experiments 1 and 3). Further, we show that task switching produces an AB only when the second target does not belong to a class of overlearned stimuli such as letters or digits (Experiments 1 and 4). When the second target is masked, however, an AB is invariably obtained regardless of switching or overlearning. We propose that task switching involves a time-consuming process of reconfiguration of the visual system, during which the representation of the second target decays beyond recognition, resulting in an AB deficit. We suggest that overlearned stimuli are encoded in a form that, while maskable, decays relatively slowly, thus outlasting the delay due to reconfiguration and avoiding the AB deficit.

Attention↗
PubMed2002

Differential activation of monkey striatal neurons in the early and late stages of procedural learning.

The basal ganglia is a key structure for procedural learning. To examine in what aspects of procedural learning the basal ganglia participate, we recorded from striatal neurons (phasically active neurons) in monkeys while the animals were performing a sequential button press task (the 2 x 5 task) and compared the neuronal activity between two conditions: (1) while learning new sequences and (2) while executing overlearned sequences. Among 147 neurons recorded in two monkeys, 45 neurons were activated preferentially for new sequences (new-preferring neurons), 34 for overlearned sequences (learned-preferring neurons), and 68 were activated non-selectively (non-selective neurons). New-preferring neurons were more abundant in the "association" region [association striatum (AS); caudate nucleus and rostral putamen anterior to the anterior commissure], while the learned-preferring neurons were more abundant in the "sensorimotor" region [sensorimotor striatum (SM); putamen posterior to the anterior commissure]. In addition to the learning dependency, the AS and SM neurons were activated in different task periods: many AS neurons were activated during the delay period, while the SM neurons were more activated with reaching and button presses. These data, together with the data from our previous blockade study, suggest that the "association" and "sensorimotor" regions of the basal ganglia contribute preferentially to the early and late stages of procedural learning, respectively.

Animals↗
PubMed1975

Changes in alpha rhythm asymmetry during learning of verbal and visuospatial tasks.

Alpha activity in the two cortical hemispheres was examined during learning and overlearning of a verbal and a visuospatial task. Compared to a pretask baseline condition, the amount of alpha activity during the tasks was decreased. An increase in alpha activity was found from learning to overlearning in both tasks. A greater amount of alpha was found in the right hemisphere for both tasks. In addition, no difference in the degree of alpha asymmetry was found between the tasks. This was discussed in light of prior contrary findings. A significant positive correlation was found between change in learning rate and change in alpha asymmetry during the verbal task. An interpretation of this finding was offered in terms of the level of hemispheric activation reflecting the degree of task engagement.

Alpha Rhythm↗
PubMed1995

Plasma cobalamin levels affect information processing speed in a longitudinal study of HIV-1 disease.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether information processing speed is influenced by change in plasma cobalamin status in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 disease. DESIGN: A longitudinal study, using autoregression, to evaluate the relationship between plasma cobalamin status and change in information processing speed assessed by Posner Letter Matching, Sternberg Short-Term Memory Search, Figure Visual Scanning and Discrimination of Pictures, and continuous paired associates learning tasks. SETTING: University of Miami (Fla) School of Medicine from fall 1987 through summer 1991. PARTICIPANTS: Eighty-four human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected homosexual men aged 20 to 55 years. None of the subjects displayed acquired immunodeficiency syndrome-defining symptoms at baseline; over the course of the study, 9.5% progressed to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Biochemical measurement of plasma cobalamin; performance on information processing speed tasks. RESULTS: Significant improvement in the Posner Letter Matching NI-PI (Name Identity minus Physical Identity) differential was associated with becoming cobalamin adequate or remaining adequate. Becoming cobalamin deficient, in contrast, was associated with a significant decline in the speed of accessing overlearned name codes. CONCLUSION: Normalization of plasma cobalamin inadequacy in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 disease may provide significant improvement in the speed of retrieving overlearned information from long-term memory.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Alarm interventions for nocturnal enuresis in children.

BACKGROUND: Enuresis (bedwetting) is a socially disruptive and stressful condition which affects around 15-20% of five year olds, and up to 2% of young adults. Although there is a high rate of spontaneous remission, the social, emotional and psychological costs to the children can be great. OBJECTIVES: To assess the effects of alarm interventions on nocturnal enuresis in children, and to compare alarms with other interventions. SEARCH STRATEGY: The following electronic databases were searched: MEDLINE to June 1997; AMED; ASSIA; BIDS; BIOSIS Previews (1985-1996); CINAHL; DHSS Data; EMBASE (1974 to June 1997); PsycLIT and SIGLE. Organisations, manufacturers, researchers and health professionals concerned with enuresis were contacted for information. The reference sections of obtained studies were also checked for further trials. Date of the most recent search: July 1997. SELECTION CRITERIA: All randomised trials of alarm interventions for nocturnal enuresis in children were included in the review. Trials were eligible for inclusion if: children were randomised to alarm treatment compared with controls, other behavioural methods or drugs for nocturnal bedwetting; participants with organic causes for their bedwetting were excluded; and baseline assessments of the level of bedwetting were reported. Trials focused solely on daytime wetting were excluded. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two reviewers independently assessed the quality of the eligible trials, and extracted data. MAIN RESULTS: Twenty two randomised trials met the inclusion criteria, involving 1125 children who received treatment with alarms. The quality of many of the trials was poor, and many comparisons were addressed only by single trials. Children treated with alarms were significantly more likely than untreated controls to become dry during treatment (RR for failing to achieve 14 dry nights 0.27, 95% CI 0.19 to 0.39) and failing to remain dry (RR 0.58, 95%CI 0.46 to 0.74). There was insufficient evidence to judge whether one type of alarm is better than another and whether alarms alone were as good as or better than other behavioural interventions alone or as a supplement to alarm treatment. Desmopressin or tricyclics seem as effective as alarms while on treatment. There was limited evidence to suggest that the relapse rate might be lower after stopping alarm treatment than after desmopressin (RR 0.11, 95% CI 0.02 to 0.78). REVIEWER'S CONCLUSIONS: Alarm interventions are an effective treatment for nocturnal bedwetting in children. Desmopressin and tricyclics appeared as effective while on treatment, but this effect was not sustained after treatment stopped, and alarms may be more effective in the long term. Comparisons between drug and behavioural treatments are needed, and should include relapse rates after treatment is finished.

Case-Control Studies↗
PubMed2005

Alarm interventions for nocturnal enuresis in children.

BACKGROUND: Enuresis (bedwetting) is a socially disruptive and stressful condition which affects around 15 to 20% of five year olds, and up to 2% of young adults. OBJECTIVES: To assess the effects of alarm interventions on nocturnal enuresis in children, and to compare alarms with other interventions. SEARCH STRATEGY: We searched the Cochrane Incontinence Group specialised trials register (searched 22 November 2004) and the reference lists of relevant articles. SELECTION CRITERIA: All randomised or quasi-randomised trials of alarm interventions for nocturnal enuresis in children were included, except those focused solely on daytime wetting. Comparison interventions included no treatment, simple and complex behavioural methods, desmopressin, tricyclics, and miscellaneous other methods. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two reviewers independently assessed the quality of the eligible trials, and extracted data. MAIN RESULTS: Fifty five trials met the inclusion criteria, involving 3152 children of whom 2345 used an alarm. The quality of many trials was poor, and evidence for many comparisons was inadequate. Most alarms used audio methods. Compared to no treatment, about two thirds of children became dry during alarm use (RR for failure 0.38, 95% CI 0.33 to 0.45). Nearly half who persisted with alarm use remained dry after treatment finished, compared to almost none after no treatment (RR of failure or relapse 45/81 (55%) vs 80/81 (99%), RR 0.56, 95% CI 0.46 to 0.68). There was insufficient evidence to draw conclusions about different types of alarm, or about how alarms compare to other behavioural interventions. Relapse rates were lower when overlearning was added to alarm treatment (RR 1.92, 95% CI 1.27 to 2.92) or if dry bed training was used as well (RR 2.0, 95% CI 1.25 to 3.20). Penalties for wet beds appeared to be counter-productive. Alarms using electric shocks were unacceptable to children or their parents. Although desmopressin may have a more immediate effect, alarms appear more effective by the end of a course of treatment (RR 0.71, 95% CI 0.50 to 0.99) and there was limited evidence of greater long-term success (4/22 (18%) vs 16/24 (67%), RR 0.27, 95% CI 0.11 to 0.69). Evidence about the benefit of supplementing alarm treatment with desmopressin was conflicting. Alarms were better than tricyclics during treatment (RR 0.73, 95% CI 0.61 to 0.88) and afterwards (7/12 (58%) vs 12/12 (100%), RR 0.58, 95% CI 0.36 to 0.94). AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: Alarm interventions are an effective treatment for nocturnal bedwetting in children. Alarms appear more effective than desmopressin or tricyclics by the end of treatment, and subsequently. Overlearning (giving extra fluids at bedtime after successfully becoming dry using an alarm), dry bed training and avoiding penalties may further reduce the relapse rate. Better quality research comparing alarms with other treatments is needed, including follow-up to determine relapse rates.

Absorbent Pads↗
PubMed1996

Differences in susceptibility to the "blending illusion" among Native Hebrew and English speakers.

This study was designed to explore whether native Hebrew and English speakers differ in their susceptibility to the blend illusion and in their lip-reading of words and cliché sentences. Four lip-reading tests, designed to assess recognition of syllables, words, and overlearned sentences, were administered to two groups of subjects who were matched for age, sex, and educational level. The English-speaking group showed significantly higher susceptibility to the blending illusion. The source of the effect was in the enhanced sensitivity to the auditory input in males along with reduced number of auditory biases in females. No sex differences in lip-reading of any item of the lip-reading battery was obtained in native Hebrew speakers. Subjects in both groups performed at the same level in recognizing the words and overlearned sentences. The result is attributed to the shorter Voice Onset Time values of Hebrew when native listeners would hear acoustic messages prior to discernable lip movements.

Adult↗
PubMed1986

Visual and auditory event-related potentials elicited by linguistic and non-linguistic incongruities.

To test the hypothesis that violation of overlearned relations between stimuli in a sequence is critical for eliciting the event-related potential (ERP) N400, we recorded scalp ERPs in sequences where interstimulus relations were either overlearned (sentences or famous songs) or not (geometric figures or scale notes): 25% of the sequences ended with an incongruous stimulus. N400 occurred after incongruous words in sentences only. It seems to index the further processing necessary to specify the nature of the mismatch detected between attended and expected stimuli, when complex information is involved. Earlier components also varied as a function of experimental factors.

Adolescent↗