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PubMed1989

Alcohol and masculinity.

Alcohol use--and abuse--has always been more prevalent among males than among females. The sex role prescription for men to affirm their masculinity by drinking is a major determinant of this sex difference. This paper reviews the intricate interrelationship between masculinity and both social and alcoholic drinking. A large body of evidence indicates that social drinking is a primary cultural symbol of manliness; portrayals in the media strengthen this association. Less evidence exists to connect masculinity issues with alcoholic dependence, but there has been much speculation: Three psychodynamic theories of alcoholism--the repressed homosexuality, dependency, and power theories--hypothesized that men who drink addictively have the most fragile masculine identities. The 1980s have witnessed a widespread recognition of the dangers of equating drinking and manliness, and societal changes suggest that drinking may be gradually losing its masculine aura.

Alcohol Drinking↗
PubMed2004

Masculinity, infertility, stigma and media reports.

There is growing concern about the health of men in the developed West. Compared with women they have higher rates of morbidity and mortality and are less likely to seek out and employ medical services. Several authors have drawn on social constructionist models, such as the concept of hegemonic masculinity, to account for these gender differences in risk and behaviour. One might anticipate that certain conditions, such as male infertility, would be perceived as posing a particular threat to conventional views of masculinity. There is some support for this, although there is little research into the social construction of male infertility. In this study Discourse Analysis was employed to analyse newspaper accounts of a reported decline in sperm counts in order to study the way in which infertility and masculinity were represented and constructed in the media. The results indicate a construction of fertility as being in crisis and of male infertility as conflated with impotence. Men were positioned as vulnerable and threatened by forces outside their control. The accounts drew on a range of stereotypically masculine reference points, such as warfare and mechanical analogies. These results are consistent with concepts of hegemonic masculinity and suggest that men are offered a highly restricted set of options in terms of perceiving and representing their bodies and their health.

Gender Identity↗
PubMed2005

'It's caveman stuff, but that is to a certain extent how guys still operate': men's accounts of masculinity and help seeking.

It is often assumed that men are reluctant to seek medical care. However, despite growing interest in masculinity and men's health, few studies have focussed on men's experiences of consultation in relation to their constructions of masculinity. Those that have are largely based on men with diseases of the male body (testicular and prostate cancer) or those which have been stereotyped as male (coronary heart disease). This paper presents discussions and experiences of help seeking and its relation to, and implications for, the practice of masculinity amongst a diversity of men in Scotland, as articulated in focus group discussions. The discussions did indeed suggest a widespread endorsement of a 'hegemonic' view that men 'should' be reluctant to seek help, particularly amongst younger men. However, they also included instances which questioned or went against this apparent reluctance to seek help. These were themselves linked with masculinity: help seeking was more quickly embraced when it was perceived as a means to preserve or restore another, more valued, enactment of masculinity (e.g. working as a fire-fighter, or maintaining sexual performance or function). Few other studies have emphasised how men negotiate deviations from the hegemonic view of help-seeking.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

Constructions of masculinity and their influence on men's well-being: a theory of gender and health.

Men in the United States suffer more severe chronic conditions, have higher death rates for all 15 leading causes of death, and die nearly 7 yr younger than women. Health-related beliefs and behaviours are important contributors to these differences. Men in the United States are more likely than women to adopt beliefs and behaviours that increase their risks, and are less likely to engage in behaviours that are linked with health and longevity. In an attempt to explain these differences, this paper proposes a relational theory of men's health from a social constructionist and feminist perspective. It suggests that health-related beliefs and behaviours, like other social practices that women and men engage in, are a means for demonstrating femininities and masculinities. In examining constructions of masculinity and health within a relational context, this theory proposes that health behaviours are used in daily interactions in the social structuring of gender and power. It further proposes that the social practices that undermine men's health are often signifiers of masculinity and instruments that men use in the negotiation of social power and status. This paper explores how factors such as ethnicity, economic status, educational level, sexual orientation and social context influence the kind of masculinity that men construct and contribute to differential health risks among men in the United States. It also examines how masculinity and health are constructed in relation to femininities and to institutional structures, such as the health care system. Finally, it explores how social and institutional structures help to sustain and reproduce men's health risks and the social construction of men as the stronger sex.

Ethnicity↗
PubMed2006

Masculinity-femininity predicts sexual orientation in men but not in women.

Using the nationally representative sample of about 15,000 Add Health respondents in Wave III, the hypothesis is tested that masculinity-femininity in adolescence is correlated with sexual orientation 5 years later and 6 years later: that is, that for adolescent males in 1995 and again in 1996, more feminine males have a higher probability of self-identifying as homosexuals in 2001-02. It is predicted that for adolescent females in 1995 and 1996, more masculine females have a higher probability of self-identifying as homosexuals in 2001-02. Masculinity-femininity is measured by the classical method used by Terman & Miles. For both time periods, the hypothesis was strongly confirmed for males: the more feminine males had several times the probability of being attracted to same-sex partners, several times the probability of having same-sex partners, and several times the probability of self-identifying as homosexuals, compared with more masculine males. For females, no relationship was found at either time period between masculinity and sex of preference. The biological mechanism underlying homosexuality may be different for males and females.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

Dimensions of psychological masculinity-femininity in adult twins from opposite-sex and same-sex pairs.

Male and female twins with opposite-sex co-twins were compared to twins with same-sex co-twins on three independent dimensions of masculinity-femininity, in order to examine the hypothesis that the hormones of the co-twin might have an effect on prenatal masculinization. The analysis was originally carried out for an older cohort from the Australian Twin Registry (2647 pairs, mean age 41.2), and then repeated in a younger cohort (1503 pairs, mean age 23.2). For women, the results on two of the three scales support and extend that of an earlier large study in Finland by Rose et al. (1994), who found no effect of sex of co-twin on feminine interests. One of the two scales contrasted worried and calm individuals, the other, confiding and reserved ones. The third scale, willingness to break or bend rules, showed a small effect of shared environmental influence, and it lay in the expected direction for a prenatal hormonal effect--females with a male co-twin scored higher (more like males). Most previous studies have not looked at the effect of sex of co-twin on males. The present study detected several such effects, although all were small in magnitude. The pattern was complex: sometimes the effect was in the masculine direction, sometimes in the feminine direction; sometimes there was agreement between the older and younger cohorts, sometimes not. Overall, the results suggest that no simple masculinization hypothesis--prenatal or postnatal--will adequately account for all the evidence. Age, sex, and aspect of masculinity-femininity must be taken into account.

Adult↗
PubMed1998

Effects of physical appearance on masculine trait ratings of boys and girls with gender identity disorder.

University students, masked to group status, rated the physical appearance of boys and girls with gender identity disorder (GID) and same-sex controls using traits with stereotypical masculine connotations (for boys: all-boy, handsome, masculine, and rugged; for girls: handsome, masculine, rugged, and tomboyish). Three traits (all-boy, masculine, and rugged) were judged to be significantly less characteristic of the boys with GID as compared to the same-sex controls; for the fourth trait (handsome), the inverse result was obtained. All four traits (handsome, masculine, rugged, and tomboyish) were judged to be significantly more characteristic of the girls with GID as compared to the same-sex normal and/or clinical controls. These results were the inverse of the results obtained in two previous experiments, in which traits with stereotypical feminine connotations were used (Fridell et al., 1996; Zucker et al., 1993). Taken together, the results suggest that boys and girls with GID have a sex-typed physical appearance that distinguishes them from same-sex controls. Possible determinants of these differences are discussed.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Masculinity, femininity, and transsexualism.

This study examined the relationship between sex role and gender identity in a Polish transsexual population where, unlike in Western countries, male-to-female (MF) transsexualism is much less common than female-to-male (FM) transsexualism. One hundred and three FM (82 primary, 21 secondary) and 29 MF (16 primary, 13 secondary) transsexuals plus 135 control males (CM) and 303 control females (CF) completed a Sex Role Inventory, which measures sex-role identification, that is, the degree to which one self-identifies with masculine and feminine characteristics. Data obtained from primary transsexuals revealed that, on a femininity scale, MF transsexuals scores exceeded not only CM but also CF. On a masculinity scale, MF transsexuals rated themselves significantly lower than CM, but at a level comparable to CF. The comparison of FM transsexuals and controls showed that, on a masculinity scale, transsexuals scored higher than CF but were not different from CM. On the femininity scale, FM transsexuals rated themselves in between the two control groups: lower than CF but slightly higher than CM. The relations of secondary transsexuals' scores to CF and CM scores, on both masculine and feminine scales, were in the same direction as the primary transsexuals' scores. Secondary transsexuals rated themselves very similarly to their primary counterparts (the exception was a much higher score of MF-primary transsexuals than MF-secondary transsexuals on the femininity scale). Our study revealed that transsexualism does not imply a simple inversion of sex-role patterns: transsexuals differ not only from nontranssexual individuals of the same anatomical sex but also from those of the opposite sex. Moreover, MF transsexualism is not a mirror image of FM transsexualism: it constitutes a more extreme condition in the identification with feminine versus masculine personality traits. These differences seem to be universal for different countries and regions. The diagnostic value of our findings is discussed.

Adult↗
PubMed1995

Longitudinal and behavioral analysis of masculinity and femininity in marriage.

Spouses' masculinity and femininity were examined in relation to longitudinal change in marital satisfaction and behavior displayed in a problem-solving discussion. Results indicated, first, that wives' satisfaction declined to the extent that their husband endorsed fewer desirable masculine traits (Study 1) and more undesirable masculine traits (Study 2). Second, masculinity and femininity covaried with problem-solving behavior, particularly for behavioral sequences involving husbands' responses to wives' negative behavior. Finally, the relation between husbands' masculinity and change in wives' satisfaction was not mediated by husbands' behavior; instead, sex role and behavioral variables made independent contributions to change in wives' satisfaction. These results are important because they highlight the value of examining intraindividual and interpersonal variables when determining how marriages improve and deteriorate.

Adult↗
PubMed1984

Hormonal modulation of genital reflexes in male and masculinized female dogs.

When testosterone propionate (TP) is administered to adult, neonatally castrated male dogs and to adult females with masculinized genitalia produced by prenatal and neonatal exposure to androgen, both types of animals are unsuccessful in their attempts to copulate with receptive females. They mount and thrust vigorously but do not achieve intromission and establish a copulatory "lock." The deficit could be due to incomplete "organization" of neuromuscular mechanisms mediating erection or to the fact that the penis of such dogs are abnormally short. In this experiment, neonatally castrated males and genitally masculinized females were tested before and after TP treatment for responses to manual stimulation of the genitalia. An additional experimental group consisted of males castrated as adults, and there was a control group of normal males. After a series of TP injections, neonatally castrated males, adult castrates, and genitally masculinized females exhibited complete and strong erectile and ejaculatory reflexes. Erect penis lengths of neonatally castrated males and masculinized females were significantly shorter than those of normal males or of males castrated as adults. It is tentatively concluded that the failure of males castrated at birth, and of genitally masculinized females, to insert and lock when mounting receptive females is due to incomplete penile development and not to incomplete "organization" of spinal reflex mechanisms. However, because artificial stimulation was employed, results of this study do not prove that central nervous system mechanisms necessary for insertion and locking in copula were normally developed.

Androgens↗
PubMed1997

Caring--a masculine perspective.

The last decade has witnessed an increase in the published works dedicated to the issue of men and their masculinity. While the views are divergent, the overwhelming image of masculine identity today remains the traditional one. This traditional masculinity is underpinned by oppressive practices affecting women, gay men and black men. Within nursing, it would appear that men are assuming positions of power in ever increasing numbers and that these men tend to follow traditional masculine paths. Thus a situation is arising where a profession that consists overwhelmingly of women is being dominated by men being in positions of power. If these men occupy the traditional masculine standpoint then this may have a negative impact on care.

Civil Rights↗
PubMed2004

Brain masculinization requires androgen receptor function.

Testicular testosterone produced during a critical perinatal period is thought to masculinize and defeminize the male brain from the inherent feminization program and induce male-typical behaviors in the adult. These actions of testosterone appear to be exerted not through its androgenic activity, but rather through its conversion by brain aromatase into estrogen, with the consequent activation of estrogen receptor (ER)-mediated signaling. Thus, the role of androgen receptor (AR) in perinatal brain masculinization underlying the expression of male-typical behaviors remains unclear because of the conversion of testosterone into estrogen in the brain. Here, we report a null AR mutation in mice generated by the Cre-loxP system. The AR-null mutation in males (AR(L-/Y)) resulted in the ablation of male-typical sexual and aggressive behaviors, whereas female AR-null homozygote (AR(L-/L-)) mice exhibited normal female sexual behaviors. Treatment with nonaromatizable androgen (5alpha-dihydrotestosterone, DHT) was ineffective in restoring the impaired male sexual behaviors, but it partially rescued impaired male aggressive behaviors in AR(L-/Y) mice. Impaired male-typical behaviors in ERalpha(-/-) mice were restored on DHT treatment. The role of AR function in brain masculinization at a limited perinatal stage was studied in AR(L-/L-) mice. Perinatal DHT treatment of females led to adult females sensitive to both 17beta-estradiol and DHT in the induction of male-typical behaviors. However, this female brain masculinization was abolished by AR inactivation. Our results suggested that perinatal brain masculinization requires AR function and that expression of male-typical behaviors in adults is mediated by both AR-dependent and -independent androgen signaling.

Androgen Receptor Antagonists↗
PubMed1996

Functional testicular tissue does not masculinize development of the zebra finch song system.

Current theories of sexual differentiation maintain that ovarian estrogen prevents masculine development of the copulatory system in birds, whereas estrogen derived from testicular androgens promotes masculine sexual differentiation of neuroanatomy and sexual behavior in mammals. Paradoxically, some data suggest that the neural song system in zebra finches follows the mammalian pattern with estrogenic metabolites of testicular secretions causing masculine development. To test whether the removal of estrogen from males during early development would prevent the development of masculine song systems, zebra finches were treated embryonically with an inhibitor of estrogen synthesis. In addition, this treatment in genetic female zebra finches induced both functional ovarian and testicular tissue to develop, thus allowing the assessment of the direct effects of testicular secretions on song system development. In males, the inhibition of estrogen synthesis before hatching had a small but significant effect in demasculinizing one aspect of the neural song system. In treated females, the song systems remained morphologically feminine. These results suggest that masculinization of the song system is not determined solely by testicular androgens or their estrogenic metabolites.

Aging↗
PubMed1993

Masculinity, femininity, and male scientists' self-esteem and self-acceptance.

In this study, I investigated differences in self-esteem, self-acceptance, masculinity, femininity, and locus of control among sample populations of men, including scientists, other professionals, college students, mental health clients, and perpetrators of domestic violence. The Personal Orientation Inventory (Shostrom, 1974), Rotter Internal-External Locus of Control Scale (Rotter, 1966), and Bem Sex Role Inventory (Bem, 1974) were administered to subjects, together with a demographic data sheet. I used correlations to examine the relationship of masculinity, femininity and locus of control to self-esteem and self-acceptance and an analysis of variance to investigate differences between male scientists and other groups of men. Masculinity correlated with self-esteem for all but the student group, and internal locus of control correlated with self-esteem for all but the student and perpetrator groups. Self-acceptance correlated with masculinity for the client group and with internal locus of control for the student and client groups. I found no correlations with femininity. No significant differences existed between male scientists and other male professionals in self-esteem, masculinity, femininity, or locus of control. Self-acceptance scores were significantly lower for male scientists than for other male professionals.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Masculinization of female mosquitofish in Kraft mill effluent-contaminated Fenholloway River water is associated with androgen receptor agonist activity.

Female mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis holbrooki) downstream from Kraft paper mills in Florida display masculinization of the anal fin, an androgen-dependent trait. The current investigation was designed to determine if water contaminated with pulp-mill effluent (PME) from the Fenholloway River in Florida displayed androgenic activity in vitro and to relate this activity to the reproductive status of female mosquitofish taken from this river. We tested water samples for androgenic activity from a reference site upstream of a Kraft pulp and paper mill on the Fenholloway River, from 3 sites downstream from the mill, and from another reference site on the Econfina River, also in Florida, where there is no paper mill. We also examined anal fin ray morphology in mosquitofish from these rivers for evidence of masculinization. Eighty percent of the female mosquitofish from the Fenholloway River were partially masculinized while another 10% were completely masculinized, based upon the numbers of segments in the longest anal fin ray (18.0 +/- 0.4 vs. 28.1 +/- 0.9 [p < 0.001]) in the Econfina River vs. the Fenholloway River, respectively). In a COS whole cell-binding assay, all 3 PME samples displayed affinity for human androgen receptor (hAR) (p < 0.001). In addition, PME induced androgen-dependent gene expression in CV-1 cells (cotransfected with pCMV hAR and MMTV luciferase reporter), which was inhibited by about 50% by coadministration of hydroxyflutamide (1 microM), an AR antagonist. Water samples collected upstream of the Kraft mill or from the Econfina River did not bind hAR or induce luciferase expression. When CV-1 cells were transfected with human glucocorticoid receptor (hGR) rather than hAR, PME failed to significantly induce MMTV-luciferase expression. Further evidence of the androgenicity was observed using a COS cell AR nuclear-translocalization assay. PME bound hAR and induced translocalization of AR into the nucleus. In contrast, AR remained perinuclear when treated with water from the control sites (indicating the absence of an AR ligand). Interestingly, PME also displayed "testosterone-like" immunoreactivity in a testosterone radioimmunoassay, whereas water from the reference sites did not. In summary, water collected downstream of the Kraft mill on the Fenholloway River contains unidentified androgenic substances whose presence is associated with masculinization of female mosquitofish.

Androgens↗
PubMed2005

SRD5A2 gene analysis in an Italian population of under-masculinized 46,XY subjects.

OBJECTIVE: The differential diagnosis of male under-masculinization, including a wide spectrum of phenotypes and a heterogeneous genetic basis, is crucial for the correct management of the patients. To characterize an Italian population of under-masculinized males, we performed the molecular analysis of the SRD5A2 gene (2p23), encoding the 5alpha-reductase-2 enzyme that converts testosterone (T) to dihydrotestosterone (DHT), and is required for full masculinization of the male foetus. DESIGN AND PATIENTS: Twenty-six Italian patients with 46,XY kariotype and various degrees of ambiguous genitalia were retrospectively selected for this study. Twelve of these patients, 10 of whom were referred for partial androgen insensitivity syndrome (PAIS), were raised as females; 15 were raised as males and all had a severe hypospadias. For most of the patients, the case histories and hormonal findings were incomplete but all could be included in the clinical characteristics of under-masculinization. MEASUREMENT: For hormonal evaluation, T and DHT were measured by means of radioimmunoassay (RIA) and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-RIA methods, respectively. Genomic DNA of all patients and relatives was extracted from peripheral blood, the five exons of the SRD5A2 gene were amplified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and submitted to automatic sequencing. RESULTS: Five known mutations affecting the NADPH binding function and one new mutation affecting the enzyme C-terminus were identified in a total of eight patients (two of whom were sisters). Five families were characterized, and in two patients only one affected allele was observed. The extension of the analysis to the regions flanking exons allowed the identification of a new polymorphism in intron 2, whose frequency was determined. CONCLUSION: This first report of an Italian population underlines the importance of differential diagnoses in patients with under-masculinization. The lack of precise genotype-phenotype correlation in some of the mutations highlights the necessity to improve knowledge about the biochemical aspects of steroid 5alpha-reductase action and about the interactions of genetic and environmental factors.

3-Oxo-5-alpha-Steroid 4-Dehydrogenase↗
PubMed1980

Independent CPI masculinity and femininity scales: psychological correlates and a sex-role typology.

The meanings of masculinity and femininity as measured by independent scales (MSC and FMN) on the CPi are explored, and a sex-role typology is constructed. The CPI and ACL were administered to 287 college students. Correlations of MSC and FMN with 18 CPI measures showed both masculinity and femininity to be positive traits. Masculinity included self-confidence, mental alertness, assertiveness, leadership, and poise; femininity included socialization, self-control, development of ethical standards, and emotional sensitivity. A sex-role typology was formed, based on joint MSC and FMN scores, and each sex-role type was described, based on its relationship with 18 measures on the CPI and 300 adjectives on the ACL. The typology showed that the high MSC/high FMN group described themselves in favorable terms. The low MSC/low FMN group appeared unhappy, somewhat withdrawn, and distrustful. The self-description of high MSC/low FMN and low MSC/high FMN groups corresponded to stereotypic views of masculinity and femininity, respectively. The similarity of these findings with research using different approaches suggests that consistent pictures of masculinity, femininity, and sex-role types are emerging.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1987

Masculinity, femininity, and psychosocial adjustment in medical students: a 2-year follow-up.

As part of a longitudinal study of medical students, relations between masculinity and femininity and psychosocial well-being were investigated over a 21-month interval. Of a class of medical students, 82% (N = 99) completed measures of masculinity and femininity during orientation and, 21 months later, completed a broad array of measures of psychological well-being, interpersonal functioning, humanistic attitudes toward patient care, and alcohol consumption. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses with interaction terms revealed main effects of masculinity on self-esteem, extraversion, and confidence, and main effects of femininity on hedonic capacity, interpersonal satisfaction, sharing of personal problems, and alcohol consumption. Little evidence for additive or balance androgyny formulations was found. Findings for masculinity were consistent with earlier findings from this study and others, but they were weaker in magnitude. Findings for femininity were surprisingly robust and enrich the construct validity of this measure. Measures of impaired mood and of alcohol and drug impairment were also studied in relation to masculinity and femininity. Both variables contribute to the prediction of depressed mood; femininity also contributes to the prediction of drug involvement. Neither scale has sufficient sensitivity or specificity to be used by itself as a test of impairment.

Adult↗