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PubMed1970

[Not Available].

In the paper a number of problems are discussed from the history of medicine--from ancient times up to the present days. The positive experience is pointed out of the centuries-long development of medicine and its enormous significance for the education and correct thinking of the doctor of today. History of medicine is considered as a living source of an exact ethics and doctrinary behaviour, as a powerful beacon enlightening the present and future of medical practice. The author supports the statement that the marxism-leninism philosophy is the only one securing correct medical thinking and action and the only one that might provide for eliminating the blind doctrinairism and various narrow-minded deviations from the research work and practice.

Communism↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Ivan Pavlov on communist dogmatism and the autonomy of science in the Soviet Union in the early 1920s. 1923.

On 25 September, 1923, two days before his 74th birthday, Ivan Petrovich Pavlov stood before a class of medical students assembled in the auditorium of his Alma Mater, the Military Medical Academy in Leningrad. Pavlov, the recipient of the Nobel prize in medicine in 1904 for his work in physiology, was about to address his first class of the new academic year, and, as was his custom, he had prepared his first lecture on a general theme. This was an especially significant address, however, for in it Pavlov reviewed the impressions he had gathered during his travels in Western Europe and the United States in the summer of 1923, and he criticised the prevailing ideology of Soviet communism by attacking the ideas of Nikolai Ivanovich Bukharin, then the leading expositor of Bolshevik Marxism. An English translation of the lecture is printed below.

Communism↗
PubMed1999

Capitalism, money and banking: a critique of recent historical sociology.

A conception of money as a 'neutral veil' masking a 'real' economy was adopted by orthodox economic theory after the Methodenstreit, and is also to be found, in a different form, in Marxian political economy. Both derive from an erroneous functionalist and anachronistic 'commodity' theory of money which, as Post-Keynesian economists argue, cannot explain the distinctive form of capitalist credit-money. Orthodox economic theory and classic Marxism have tacitly informed and flawed historical sociology's understanding of money's role in capitalist development. Mann and Runciman, for example, consider the 'economy' exclusively in terms of the social relations of production and imply that money is epiphenomenal and is to be explained as a response to the needs of the 'real' economy. They do not recognize the structural specificity of capitalist money and banking nor its importance. An alternative account of the autonomous historical conditions of existence of the specifically capitalist form of bank and state credit-money and its role in capitalist development is outlined.

Capitalism↗
PubMed2006

[Aesthetics theory and method of landscape resource assessment].

With the destruction of natural environment by human beings, scenic resources are no longer inexhaustible in supply and use. Human beings begin to lay the scenic resources on the same important strategic status as other natural resources, while landscape resources assessment is the prerequisite of their sustainable exploitation and conservation. This paper illustrated the psychological mechanisms of aesthetic and its approaches, compared with the methodologies of traditional and modem landscape aesthetic research, discussed the characteristics of important aesthetic theories (Platonism, Kant paradigm, Empathizing theory, Gestalt paradigm, Marxism aesthetics theory, and Appleton theory) and the landscape assessment theories of 4 paradigms (expert, psychological, cognitive, and empirical) and 2 groups (landscape environment science and landscape architecture culture), and summarized the important practices and successful examples at home and abroad. It was demonstrated that the historical development of landscape assessment had the feature of a contest between expert- and perception-based approaches, with the expert approach dominated in landscape management, while the perception-based approach dominated in landscape research. Both of these approaches generallty accepted that landscape quality was derived from the interaction between the biophysical features of landscape and the percepultual (judgmental) processes of human viewer. In the future, landscape quality assessment will evolve toward a shaky marriage, both expert- and perceptual approaches will be applied in parallel and merged in the final landscape management decision-making process in some but unspecified way, landscape information and complex geo-temporal dynamics representation central to scenic ecosystem management will present major challenges to the traditional landscape aesthetic assessment, and modem science and technology will continue to help meet these challenges. The main trends of landscape resources aesthetic assessment in this century will be the amalgamation and incorporation of diverse paradigms, the cross-disciplinary intersection and quantitative assessment, the emphasis of environment information and landscape ecological value recognition, the universal application of modern science and technology and of the dynamic and intellectual approaches of landscape information, the reality of landscape simulation and its scene technology of human perception, and the more attention to history and landscape culture.

Conservation of Natural Resources↗
PubMed2003

[Polish medical ethics in the period 1945-1980].

The purpose of this article is o present that main currents of Polish medical ethics in the years 1945-1980, which the author treats as the 'prehistory' of Poland's contemporary bioethics. The author begins by ascertaining the post-war disappearance of two Polish traditions--that of the Warsaw school of philosopher-physicians (known in the West as the Polish School of Philosophy of Medicine) and the Lwów-Warsaw School of Philosophy. The political system that come into being after 1945 was not conducive to the development of medical ethics, but several clear orientations may be discerned in the utterances of physicians, lawyers, moral technologlans and academic philosophers. The analysis begins with Catholic ethics in its archaic 1950s-vintage form. The author then presents the thinking of ethicians Independent of both the Church and Marxism (the milieu of the journal 'Etyka') as well as the deontological writings of physicians.

Bioethics↗
PubMed1991

[Continuity--adjustment--autonomy--physician--patient--an overview of medical cultural philosophy in former East Germany].

The author probes into the "culture" of medical thinking in the former GDR in respect of the interlinking of socialisation of the doctor, within the framework of socialism, with the fate of the patient; the fundamentals of the development of science and of the pattern of cultural life; and the development of moral consciousness and health policy under the influence of Marxist-Leninist teachings. (One should not neglect the difference made by the author between "official Marxism-Leninism as decreed by the state" and "Marxist theory" as well as "public level of consciousness".) Errors of judgment, illusions, so-called "noble" ideals of the medical profession such as ambitiousness, engagedness, and readiness to shoulder responsibilities, were interwoven with the trend to functionalism, to keep the party bureaucracy of the SED in power. One of the thematic points of emphasis was the "changing of paradigms in medicine", such as the hostility to psychology as a feature of GDR socialism, or the sociopolitically dictated condemnation of non-institutional or "alternative" medicine. The author sees a basic trend to technocracy in GDR medicine. He shows up trends to "moral remote control" of the doctor, to a deliberately practised illusionment, a systematically engineered demounting of decisions based on moral constraints--such demounting being promoted both in the doctor's mind and in actual practice--and to eliminating emotional obstacles officially construed as "interfering" with a strictly objectified doctor-patient relationship. Nothing in this context can be soft-pedalled and excused. The author points specifically to the officially promoted vision of a "successful repair and construction of a New Man". Within the context of socialist ideal views and actual socialisation of the doctor there are similarities between the balance-sheets of 1945 and 1989 in Germany without attempting to suggest that this amounts to a comparison on the same level with the genocide and war guilt of the National Socialist era. Guilt is a burden on the mind, but non-assessed guilt and lack of a possibility of redemption destroys humans. The article is a plea against an increasing tendency to criminalize the former GDR citizen and the doctors. "It will be necessary to honestly review the past history embodying my own errors, mistaken concepts and illusions." All this is only a first approximation to an important and complex subject. It is the author's aim to promote a better understanding between the former GDR citizens and those of West Germany.

Continuity of Patient Care↗
PubMed1983

[Medicine and society. Schools of thought in the health field].

The article considers the answers given by different schools of thought to the fundamental questions about the degree of autonomy of medicine and the kind of articulation between medicine and society as a whole and in its "parts." The answers vary with the thinking in the different social sciences and the philosophic schools associated with them. The author divides his presentation in two broad chapters: The first covers schools of thought in the health field, and attempts to delineate the philosophical foundations underlying the principal current schools of thought in this field, without attempting a history of the philosophical schools or analyzing each of them in detail. Thus, two idealist currents are studied which have exerted great influence in the health field--neopositivism and neo-Kantianism--and marxism as the materialist school, which recognizes the primary of matter, nature, and objective reality, and views consciousness as a property of matter. The second chapter considers the theoretical contest now going on among the schools of thought discussed in the first chapter, which try to explain the relationship between medicine and the social structure; the effectiveness of medical action, and the social determinants of disease. Prior to the seventies, the author says, the dominant view of the autonomy of medicine, its effectiveness, the potential for social change of the medical institutions, and the benefits to health of economic development, was endorsed by the predominance of positivism among these schools of medical thought. The view that medicine was broadly autonomous and at the same level with other subsystems such as the economic, the political and the educational subsystems, assumed the possibility of changing society by an effort begun through any of these "sectors." The enormous growth of productive forces that took place in the developed capitalist countries during the fifties, and even more during the sixties, collided at the end of the latter decade with the existing social production relations, which checked the progress of the production forces and generated a series of challenges in civil society to the aims of economic development and the achievements of science in relation to the inequality of the distribution of wealth. In the health sector, this was a time of criticism of the positivist view and of pointing out the negative effects of medicalization, highlighting the ideological and self-perpetuating character of medical institutions, and proposals for the demedicalization of society.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

History, 19th Century↗
PubMed1994

[Health and life style].

In the theoretically top-heavy, demanding and over-fastidiously artificial and abstract variety of Marxism, some seeds of certain anthropological and biological "constants" of illness and health had been at least sown. This notwithstanding, society as conceived and practised in the former so-called German Democratic Republic was governed by an oversocialised image of Man. The positive core of this tendency to oversocialisation was the axiom that humanising Man coincided with humanising Man's social environment. Negative sequels of such oversocialisation of the human image were, among others, separating Man's anthropological mode of existence from the social context; underestimating the role of borderline situations in human life (as conceived by Jaspers); and massive intrusions by the State into Man's private sphere. Last but by no means least, the vision of the emerging new "rich human being", of a "human being in need of the entirety of human manifestations of life" (Marx) proved to be nothing but a Utopian abstraction. One of the arguments brought forward was that chances to acquire and preserve health are actually options for translating aims of life into reality by means of the possibilities of individual development of one's innate propensities, possibilities offered to Man by and within the framework of social structures. It follows from this manner of reasoning that both the political and the intellectual strata in the German Democratic Republic were convinced that their ideological construction of "congruence" between the interests of society and those of the individual was indeed a reality.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Communism↗
PubMed1993

Praxis: a case study in the depoliticization of methods in nursing research.

This paper offers a case study in the depoliticization of the concept of praxis as it enters the nursing literature through Margaret Newman's (1990) paper Theory of Health as Praxis, which draws on Lather's (1986) description of 'research as praxis.' Newman's view of the relationship between consciousness and matter is contrasted with that of Marxism and her concept of health-illness is discussed. These considerations yield some examples of the liberal-democratic ideological position which underwrites her theory, and it is suggested that in drawing on the notion of praxis, Newman borrows from an ideology which is ultimately at odds with her theoretical construction of nursing.

Communism↗
PubMed1998

The international flow of cultural capital and an American anthropologist's experiences doing ethnography in Croatia: the insider/outsider question.

This essay is a discussion of the author's changing perspectives of his anthropological research in Croatia which comes about through the postmodern critique of theorectical paradigms as well as the fact that financial and cultural globalization has changed the subject of our research. Added to the globalization process and the international flow of cultural capital in Croatia are the recent events of the collapse of a modernism experiment in Marxism and the emergence of ethnic nationalism. The complexity of these current postmodern trends in theorectical anthropology, combined with complex current historical processes on top of a very complex history in Croatia, raise real questions about whether or not the outsider anthropologist can textualize the cultural situation here. But, a question still remains as to whether the insider anthropologist/ethnologist can textualize a cultural situation that is difficult to draw parameters around because of the international flow of cultural capital, e.g., are the younger generation really focused on localized ethnic nationalism or is this now a situation that is so internationalized that our former assumptions about local place make no longer make sense?

Anthropology, Cultural↗
PubMed1990

Population and poverty in dependent states: Latin America considered.

"Malthusians maintain that rapid population growth aggravates poverty, while Marxists contend that social formations determine its nature and extent. Each perspective is incomplete, however, since it ignores the insights of the other. Latin American states, characterized by dependent capitalism formations and dominated by ruling elites, are generally incapable of solving the problems of population and poverty. Since population growth under dependent capitalism weakens labor's bargaining position against capital, reduced population growth is emphasized as a labor empowerment strategy the poor can implement on their own to improve their socioeconomic conditions."

Communism↗
PubMed1981

Racism, society, and disease: an exploration of the social and biological mechanisms of differential mortality.

Racial differentials in mortality provide important insight into the nature of mass disease in capitalist society. Not only are the differentials sizable in magnitude, they are consistent for multiple causes of death and appear to evolve in response to social development. The relationships among social factors and the biological and physical agents of disease can be identified through racial contrasts and a pattern of causation which applies to both the minority and majority populations described. Furthermore, the impact of exploitation as the primary disease-mediating factor under capitalist social relations can be estimated. This paper attempts to combine an analysis of bio-medical mechanisms with Marxist social theory in a comprehensive framework for the study of the social origins of racial differentials.

Black or African American↗
PubMed1986

Health education in Cuba: a preface.

Critics of health education policy in the United States fault it for ignoring the unequal ability of Americans to adopt more healthy behavior and for underestimating the social, economic, and political causes of disease. Many critics hypothesize that health education in a less bourgeois society would be more equitable and less individualistic. This article tests that hypothesis by analyzing the current Cuban health education program aimed at the reduction of chronic diseases. It argues that while the Cuban program appears to be every bit as individualistic as the North American program, theirs may not be comparable to ours because Cubans are less likely than Americans to reify the state. At least among supporters of the revolution, Cubans do not automatically make a conceptual distinction between the individual and the society. Discussions about responsibility for disease prevention take on new meaning in this light.

Accidents, Traffic↗