Young women and labor: in-school labor force status and early postschool labor market outcomes.
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Adolescent↗
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Role overload and health: the married mother in the waged labor force.
Women are joining the waged labor force in ever increasing numbers, raising the proportion of women who hold multiple roles. Each of these roles frequently place significant time and labor demands on women, causing researchers to speculate on a subsequent negative effect on women's health. Research studies paint colorful images of today's working, married mother but have only begun to identify risks to women's health that might be associated with the increased demands associated with multiple roles.
Female↗
Early childbearing patterns and women's labor force behavior in later life.
The purpose of this research is to evaluate the consequences of early childbearing decisions for women's labor force activity in later life. Within a life course framework, women's early childbearing activities may be linked to later life decisions. Women between ages 55 and 64 are evaluated from the 1984 Survey of Income and Program Participation. Two measures of early family roles are considered: total fertility (number of children ever born) and timing of first-birth (childless, prior to age 30, and 30+). Results provide some limited support that early childbearing roles do in fact have a long-term impact on the employment decisions of women. Women who delay childbearing are somewhat more likely to remain in the labor force during their later years whereas women who remain childless are more likely to have exited the labor force.
Adult↗
Recent changes in mortality and labor force behavior among older Americans: consequences for nonworking life expectancy.
Increment-decrement working life tables for 1972 and 1980 are used to assess the relative impact of recent changes in mortality and labor force behavior on the number of years older men and women can expect to spend out of the labor force (nonworking life expectancy). The life tables are based on data from the Current Population Surveys and pertain to the population aged 55 and older for the two observation points. The results indicate that nonworking life expectancy increased dramatically between 1972 and 1980 for both men and women. Although labor force behavior changed markedly for both population groups during the observation period, the results clearly identify that changes in mortality were responsible for the increases in nonworking life expectancy. Implications of the findings for social policy are briefly discussed.
Actuarial Analysis↗
The relationship between retirement life cycle changes and older men's labor force participation rates.
This study probes the utility of older men's labor force participation rates (LFPRs) as indicators of the work-to-retirement transition. Specific attention is directed at how shifts in the retirement life cycle are related to LFPRs. Based on Current Population Survey data for the 1970s, a life table modeling approach showed that LFPRs are relatively weak indicators of the work-to-retirement transition. This was demonstrated by the relative stability in older men's age profiles of LFPRs despite significant changes in the timing and "organization" of the work-to-retirement transition. The 1970s evidenced a contraction of the main career and the expansion of both post-retirement work activity and retirement, yet none of these changes substantially altered the age profiles of older men's labor force participation rates.
Aged↗
Unemployment, labor force composition and sickness absence: a panel data study.
Sickness absence tends to be negatively correlated with unemployment rates. In addition to pure health effects, this may be due to moral hazard behavior by workers who are fully insured against income loss during sickness and to physicians who meet demand for medical certificates. Alternatively, it may reflect changes in the composition of the labor force, with more sickness-prone workers entering the labor force in upturns. A panel of Norwegian register data is used to analyze long-term sickness absences. The unemployment rate is shown to be negatively associated with the probability of absence, and with the number of days of sick leave. Restricting the sample to workers who are present in the whole sample period, the negative relationship between absence and unemployment becomes clearer. This indicates that procyclical variations in sickness absence are caused by established workers and not by the composition of the labor force.
Absenteeism↗
Widowhood, sex, labor force participation, and the use of physician services by elderly adults.
This paper investigated the relationships of widowhood, sex, and labor force participation with the use of ambulatory physician services by elderly adults. Data on 18,441 individuals aged 55 and over were taken from the 1978 Health Interview Survey. Hierarchical regression results indicated that although these three factors are related to physician utilization at the zero- and first-partial levels, only sex remained significant when their two- and three-way interactions and other variables from the behavioral model (including living arrangements) were introduced. This suggests that the effects of widowhood and labor force participation are spurious. Widows are simply more likely to live alone and are less likely to work than widowers; those who live alone and do not work are more likely to use health services (and more of them) than those who live with others and are gainfully employed.
Aged↗
The labor force and urbanization in the Middle East: analysis and policy.
"The purpose of this paper is to describe and comment on the labor force movements in the Middle East with particular reference to the implications of these flows for the process of urbanization in the region. [The author deals] with both international transfers of labor and internal movements of labor to urban communities." The international flow of labor in the Middle East in general is first examined, and a classification scheme is outlined to identify the major differences that exist within the region. Internal labor force migration is then analyzed using data for Libya. The final sections of the paper deal with data collection and policy issues.
Africa↗
The changing U.S. labor force and occupational differentiation by sex.
The degree of occupational differentiation by sex in the U.S. labor force is examined utilizing various measures and occupational classifications over the period 1900-1970. A consideration of comparable occupations over time indicates that while occupational differentiation by sex is still substantial, an irregular, measurable decline in that differentiation has occurred during this century. Existing labor force structure seems relatively unimportant in explaining this ongoing change. Apparently more significant are social and historical factors as they have influenced specific occupations in certain decades.
Demography↗
Mississippi's physician labor force: current status and future challenges.
The literature review indicates that changes in Medicaid/Medicare reimbursement, large numbers of uninsured patients, the legal climate, and largely rural and chronically ill populations create a challenging environment for physicians practicing in Mississippi. As a largely rural state, many Mississippians find medical care to be physically distant, with most care being concentrated in a couple areas of the state. Given these factors, the legal climate in Mississippi and the top relocation decision factors, Mississippi will be further challenged in recruiting and retaining the numbers of general practitioners and specialists necessary to provide care to the state's population. The challenges that physicians are facing have led to challenges for health policy makers, in that physicians are difficult to recruit to Mississippi and, once here, difficult to retain as practitioners throughout their career. Four datasets were used in conjunction to analyze the demographic characteristics of Mississippi's physicians, including the age structure disaggregated by several other variables. Ultimately, the results were extended to impacts of recruitment, relocations, and retirement decisions of physicians who participated in the MSMDS. Briefly, demographic results indicate that Mississippi has a largely white physician population serving a nearly 40% minority population in Mississippi. The under representation of women within the medical profession in Mississippi means that women in the state might find it unusually challenging to find a female physician, particularly in rural areas where access to physicians is more limited in the first place. Mississippi has a high concentration of African-American patients with a low African-American physician presence. The proportion of physicians who are female is on the rise nationwide and within Mississippi, largely due to increasing enrollments of women in medical schools. Though variations exist within the groups of physicians identified as generalists, Mississippi is only slightly more likely than the nation to have specialists, rather than generalists (see Table Seven). Age structure analysis indicates that Delta physicians are older than physicians elsewhere in the state, that urban physicians are younger than rural physicians, and that our physician labor force is more highly concentrated between the ages of 35 and 54 than in the nation as a whole. Analyses concerning the future of the physician labor force indicate that a near majority of Mississippi's practicing physicians received their MD degree at UMC, but younger physicians are more likely to have been educated out-of-state than older physicians. Those who received their degrees elsewhere and chose to practice in Mississippi are more likely to be specialists (60%) than generalists (40%). Those physicians practicing in the state who were educated in-state are nearly equally as likely to be generalists (47%) as they are to be specialists (53%). Additionally, those approaching retirement are more likely to be generalists, yet the state is recruiting more generalists from recent medical school classes than in the past. Variations in intentions to recruit, relocate, and retire exist. However, most of the substantively important variation is across age groups and time in practice. There is little relevance of specialty or location within the state when examining variation in recruitment, relocation or retirement plans. Given the findings, policy research recommendations focus on improving the retention of UMC's graduates for practice in the state, improving retention of active physicians, increasing the recruitment of physicians from out of state, and easing difficulties associated with working part-time as a step toward retirement. With these changes in policy, it is possible that Mississippi can thwart a physician workforce shortage; however, without changes, with more physicians relocating, retiring early, or opting out of practicing in the state, the extant physician shortage will become more severe. Furthermore, without the data collection efforts mentioned here, there will be no means to assess whether policy changes are actually impacting the physician labor force.
Adult↗
Household structure and labor force participation of black, hispanic, and white mothers.
This paper investigates whether the inclusion of nonnuclear adults in a household facilitates the labor force participation of single and married mothers. Results based on a sample of extended and nuclear households show that the extension mechanism facilitates the labor market entry of married mothers, but not of single mothers. Interactions between extended structure, ethnicity, and poverty, however, suggest a complex relationship. For extended family households, the gender and employment characteristics of nonnuclear adults affected the labor force participation of single mothers, but the number of nonnuclear members was inversely associated with the market activity of married mothers. Policy implications are discussed in the final section.
Black or African American↗
Influences of socio-demographic and social context risk factors on labor force aged mortality from communicable disease.
OBJECTIVE: Study the influences of socio-demographic and social context risk factors on labor force aged mortality from communicable disease. MATERIAL AND METHOD: A sample of 28,298 individuals were used to build a piece-wise exponential hazard model. Investigation of the cause of death used "verbal autopsy". RESULT: It was found that more males are likely to die than females (Exp. = 1.54, S.E. = 0.19). Mortality risk for those who work is lower than for the jobless while mortality risk for laborers is greater than for the jobless (Exp. = 2.80, S.E. = 0.54). Migrants are more likely to die than those who have not migrated (Exp. = 12.68, S.E. = 0.22). People who live in households with debt are more likely to die than those who live in debt-free households (Exp. = 1.21, S.E. = 0. 17). Environmental problems and drinking water quality have significant positive relationship with death due to communicable disease. CONCLUSION: A health prevention plan for individual, household, and community level for this labor force aged population needs to be provided.
Adolescent↗
The participation of females in the labor force and rates of personal violence (suicide and homicide).
This study explored the relationship between the participation of married women in the labor force, both part-time and full-time, and rates of personal violence (suicide and homicide) in the continental United States. The participation of married women in the labor force was related to homicide rates. Homicide rates were higher in states where a greater percentage of married women worked full-time. In contrast, suicide rates were more strongly related to indices of social integration (e.g., interstate migration and divorce rates). These results are discussed in terms of differences in social attitudes in the various regions of the United States and the stresses created by women's working.
Attitude↗
[The long-term development of labor force potential using alternative assumptions of (net) migration to Germany].
"Using model calculations to the year 2050, this paper shows the decisive role that assumptions on future (net) migration to Germany will play in the long-term development of the labor force potential. The particular focus of this paper is to point out the importance of (net) migration not only in terms of absolute figures, but more importantly in terms of the age and gender structure. The annual net migration of 500,000 or 250,000 persons leads, depending on the assumption of its age structure, to extreme differences in the long-term development of the labor force potential." (SUMMARY IN ENG AND FRE AND RUS)
Age Factors↗
Labor-force participation patterns of older self-employed workers.
Self-employed persons work in a less constrained environment than do most wage-and-salary employees. Generally they are not subject to compulsory retirement nor are they affected by institutional rules concerning labor supply. Data from the 1969 and 1971 interviews of the Retirement History Study show that the labor supply and retirement patterns of the self-employed are distinct from those of other workers. The self-employed (espeically "career" self-employed) nearing retirement age are less likely to be out of the labor force, and those who continue in the labor force have a wider variation in the number of hours worked per year. Downward flexibility in hours (the option for gradual retirement) may be an extremely valuable aspect of self-employed status, and one wonders whether other older workers would also choose this pattern if more flexible opportunities were available. Despite these differences, labor-supply decisions of the self-employed are found to be influenced by many of the same factors that affect the rest of the workforce--health, eligibility for social security and pension benefits, the wage rate, and the flow of asset.
Cross-Sectional Studies↗
Women's labor force participation in later life: the effects of early work and family experiences.
The purpose of this study was to develop and evaluate a model of labor force participation among a group of older women in the United States. A comprehensive measure of women's combined work and family experiences across the adult life course was created. Employing data from the 1984 Survey of Income and Program Participation, we applied multinomial logistic regression techniques to examine the association between work-family experiences and later life labor supply. Our findings generally support an attachment hypothesis, showing that women who were the most work-oriented throughout the life course were more likely than women who experienced family-related spells of nonlabor-market activity to participate in the labor force, either full-time or part-time, later in life.
Adult↗
Seasonal variations in labor-force activity and intrahousehold substitution of labor in rural Kenya.
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Africa↗
Labor-force participation of older married women.
This article utilizes the 1969, 1971, and 1973 waves of the Longitudinal Retirement History Study (LRHS) to examine stopping work by working wives of respondents. Different patterns of labor-force participation reveal that younger wives of respondents were more likely to work than were older wives. Most wives did not reenter the labor force after leaving it. The determinants of stopping or continuing work in 1969-73 for those wives who worked in 1969 were also examined. Although the patterns were somewhat different for younger wives, two factors stand out: Coverage of the wife by a private pension plan and providing for children or elderly parents have substantial effects on the probability of continuing work.
Age Factors↗