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PubMed2001

Homeopathy in the USA.

Homeopathy was introduced into the USA by Hans Burch Gram in 1825. It developed largely through immigration of German homeopaths. The first homeopathic medical college was established in Allentown, PA in 1835. The American institute of Homeopathy (AIH) was founded in 1844. The American Medical Association was founded in 1847 and pursued policies hostile to homeopathy from the outset. Eclectic medicine was widespread in nineteenth century medicine, one of the greatest homeopaths, JT Kent had originally been an eclectic. The International Hahnemannian Association split from the AIH in 1880. The Flexner Report of 1910 resulted in many homeopathic medical colleges being closed down. Homeopathy in the USA was in steep decline from the 1920s to the 1960s but has had a strong recovery since the 1970s.

American Medical Association↗
PubMed1998

Can biological activity be maintained at ultra-high dilution? An overview of homeopathy, evidence, and Bayesian philosophy.

Forty percent of general practitioners in the Netherlands practice homeopathy. With over 100 homeopathic medical schools, homeopathy is practiced in India along with conventional Western medicine in government clinics. In Britain, 42% of general practitioners refer patients to homeopaths. Two recent meta-analyses of homeopathy both indicate that there is enough evidence to show that homeopathy has added effects over placebo. Against this evidence is a backdrop of considerable scientific scepticism. Homeopathic remedies are diluted substances--some are so diluted that statistically there are no molecules present to explain their proposed biological effects (ultra-high dilutions or UHDs). Without knowledge of the evidence, most scientists would reject UHD effects because of their intrinsic implausibility in the light of our current scientific understanding. The objective of this article is to critically review the major pieces of evidence on UHD effects and suggest how the scientific community should respond to its challenge. Such evidence has been conducted on a diverse range of assays--immunologic, physiological, behavioral, biochemical, and clinical in the form of trials of homeopathic remedies. Evidence of UHD effects has attracted the attention of physicists who have speculated on their physical mechanisms. Included is a critique of several experiments that form the Benveniste affair which was sparked by a publication in Nature that advocated the existence of UHD effects of anti-immunoglobulin E (IgE) on human basophils, and is the paradigm example of how a controversial phenomenon can split the scientific community. It is argued that if the phenomenon was uncontroversial, the evidence suffices to show that UHD effects exist. However, given that the observations contradict well-established theory, normal science has to be abandoned and scientists need to decide for themselves what the likelihood of UHD effects are. Bayesian analysis describes how scientists ought rationally to change their prior beliefs in the light of evidence. Theories by Kuhn and Lakatos indicate that whether UHD effects are proved or not depends on the beliefs and behaviors of scientists in their communities. This article argues that there is as yet insufficient evidence to drive rational scientists to a consensus over UHD effects, even if they possessed knowledge of all the evidence. The difficulty in publishing high-quality UHD research in conventional journals prevents a fair assessment of UHD effects. Given that the existence of UHD effects would revolutionize science and medicine, and given the considerable empirical evidence of them, the philosophies of science tell us that possible UHD effects warrant serious investigation by conventional scientists and serious attention by scientific journals.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

A randomized controlled trial of homeopathy in rheumatoid arthritis.

OBJECTIVE: To test the hypothesis that homeopathy is effective in reducing the symptoms of joint inflammation in rheumatoid arthritis (RA). METHOD: This was a 6-month randomized, cross-over, double-blind, placebo-controlled, single-centre study set in a teaching hospital rheumatology out-patient clinic. The participants of the study were 112 patients who had definite or classical RA, were seropositive for rheumatoid factor and were receiving either stable doses of single non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) for > or =3 months or single disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs) with or without NSAIDs for > or =6 months. Patients who were severely disabled, had taken systemic steroids in the previous 6 months or had withdrawn from DMARD therapy in the previous 12 months were excluded. Two series of medicines were used. One comprised 42 homeopathic medicines used for treating RA in 6cH (10(-12)) and/or 30cH (10(-30)) dilutions (a total of 59 preparations) manufactured to French National Pharmacopoeia standards, the other comprised identical matching placebos. The main outcome measures were visual analogue scale pain scores, Ritchie articular index, duration of morning stiffness and erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR). RESULTS: Fifty-eight patients completed the trial. Over 6 months there were significant decreases (P<0.01 by Wilcoxon rank sum tests) in their mean pain scores (fell 18%), articular indices (fell 24%) and ESRs (fell 11%). Fifty-four patients withdrew before completing the trial. Thirty-one changed conventional medication, 10 had serious intercurrent illness or surgery, 12 failed to attend and three withdrew consent. Placebo and active homeopathy had different effects on pain scores; mean pain scores were significantly lower after 3 months' placebo therapy than 3 months' active therapy (P=0.032 by Wilcoxon rank sum test). Articular index, ESR and morning stiffness were similar with active and placebo homeopathy. CONCLUSIONS: We found no evidence that active homeopathy improves the symptoms of RA, over 3 months, in patients attending a routine clinic who are stabilized on NSAIDs or DMARDs.

Anti-Inflammatory Agents, Non-Steroidal↗
PubMed2001

[Can homeopathy be integrated in a university hospital?].

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: The Dr. von Hauner Children's Hospital Munich has conducted a pilot project for 4 years, aiming at the integration of homeopathic concomitant treatment into daily clinical practice. This study was carried out to clarify whether the project is successful and accepted by physicians, nurses, and parents. METHODS: Questionnaires, all standardized and anonymous, were handed out to 137 physicians, 212 nurses and paramedics, and 1,048 parents of children treated at the hospital. RESULTS: 69% of the physicians appreciated concomitant homeopathic treatments, more than 60% believed the integration of homeopathy is suggestive, 75% saw a need for clinical research in homeopathy. 25% of the staff now had a more positive view towards homeopathy. 63% of the parents appreciated concomitant treatment, but only 19% are willing to participate in double-blind studies. CONCLUSIONS: Integration of homeopathy in a university hospital is possible. Therapeutic work should be accompanied by scientific research.

Attitude to Health↗
PubMed2003

Entanglement model of homeopathy as an example of generalized entanglement predicted by weak quantum theory.

Homeopathy is scientifically banned, both for lack of consistent empirical findings, but more so for lack of a sound theoretical model to explain its purported effects. This paper makes an attempt to introduce an explanatory idea based on a generalized version of quantum mechanics (QM), the weak quantum theory (WQT). WQT uses the algebraic formalism of QM proper, but drops some restrictions and definitions typical for QM. This results in a general axiomatic framework similar to QM, but more generalized and applicable to all possible systems. Most notably, WQT predicts entanglement, which in QM is known as Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen (EPR) correlatedness within quantum systems. According to WQT, this entanglement is not only tied to quantum systems, but is to be expected whenever a global and a local variable describing a system are complementary. This idea is used here to reconstruct homeopathy as an exemplification of generalized entanglement as predicted by WQT. It transpires that homeopathy uses two instances of generalized entanglement: one between the remedy and the original substance (potentiation principle) and one between the individual symptoms of a patient and the general symptoms of a remedy picture (similarity principle). By bringing these two elements together, double entanglement ensues, which is reminiscent of cryptographic and teleportation applications of entanglement in QM proper. Homeopathy could be a macroscopic analogue to quantum teleportation. This model is exemplified and some predictions are derived, which make it possible to test the model.

Evidence-Based Medicine↗
PubMed2004

Patient-Practitioner-Remedy (PPR) Entanglement, Part 7: a gyroscopic metaphor for the vital force and its use to illustrate some of the empirical laws of homeopathy.

BACKGROUND: One of the principle obstacles to homeopathy's general acceptance has been its perceived lack of sound theoretical basis within accepted deterministic bio-medical thought. This impasse might be circumvented if instead, appeal was made to the nondeterministic concepts of the physical sciences, e.g., quantum theory and its notions of entanglement, nonlocality, and uncertainty; Weak Quantum Theory (WQT) and Patient-Practitioner-Remedy (PPR) Entanglement representing two new complementary strands of thought with the potential to create a new theoretical basis for homeopathy. OBJECTIVE: The goal of this present study was to generate a preliminary mathematical model of the action and reaction of the Vital Force to diseases and remedies within the developing contexts of WQT and PPR Entanglement, based on the metaphor of a hypothetical 'quantized' gyroscope as its physical representation. METHODS: The physics of gyroscopic motion was combined with the quantum theory describing rotating objects (without some of its imposed limitations, e.g., Planck's constant, in line with the relaxation of some of orthodox quantum theory's axioms as proposed by WQT). Thus, increase or decrease in the rate of spin of the Vital Force's hypothetical gyroscope was described in terms of quantized 'shift operators' constructed mathematically from the known 'complementarity' of a remedy's primary and secondary symptoms, expressed in the notation of complex numbers. Ultimately, this generates a hypothetical 'wave function' for the Vital Force. RESULTS: This hypothetical 'wave function' has been used to illustrate certain empirical observations of homeopathy and conventional medicine, e.g., the biphasal action of remedies encapsulated in the Arndt-Schulz Law, Wilder's Law of Initial Value, and some of the results of homeopathic provings. CONCLUSION: This preliminary theoretical analysis suggests that perhaps these less well-known empirical observations should be reinvestigated and, if confirmed, could begin ultimately to provide a much-needed alternative to the doubleblind placebo-controlled trial as a means of investigating and testing the efficacy of homeopathy.

Empiricism↗
PubMed2005

A systematic review of how homeopathy is represented in conventional and CAM peer reviewed journals.

BACKGROUND: Growing popularity of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) in the public sector is reflected in the scientific community by an increased number of research articles assessing its therapeutic effects. Some suggest that publication biases occur in mainstream medicine, and may also occur in CAM. Homeopathy is one of the most widespread and most controversial forms of CAM. The purpose of this study was to compare the representation of homeopathic clinical trials published in traditional science and CAM journals. METHODS: Literature searches were performed using Medline (PubMed), AMED and Embase computer databases. Search terms included "homeo-pathy, -path, and -pathic" and "clinical" and "trial". All articles published in English over the past 10 years were included. Our search yielded 251 articles overall, of which 46 systematically examined the efficacy of homeopathic treatment. We categorized the overall results of each paper as having either "positive" or "negative" outcomes depending upon the reported effects of homeopathy. We also examined and compared 15 meta-analyses and review articles on homeopathy to ensure our collection of clinical trials was reasonably comprehensive. These articles were found by inserting the term "review" instead of "clinical" and "trial". RESULTS: Forty-six peer-reviewed articles published in a total of 23 different journals were compared (26 in CAM journals and 20 in conventional journals). Of those in conventional journals, 69% reported negative findings compared to only 30% in CAM journals. Very few articles were found to be presented in a "negative" tone, and most were presented using "neutral" or unbiased language. CONCLUSION: A considerable difference exists between the number of clinical trials showing positive results published in CAM journals compared with traditional journals. We found only 30% of those articles published in CAM journals presented negative findings, whereas over twice that amount were published in traditional journals. These results suggest a publication bias against homeopathy exists in mainstream journals. Conversely, the same type of publication bias does not appear to exist between review and meta-analysis articles published in the two types of journals.

Bias↗
PubMed1998

[The homeopathy or the myth of pure experience].

Hahnemann and homeopaths have always hold that the origine of homeopathy was essentially experimental. The Hippocrate's method of observation, the experience with quinquina carried out by Hahnemann in 1790, and furthermore a similar experimental thought than the C. Bernard's one, are constantly put forward. The alchemist origins of homeopathy, in particular Paracelse, that old authors had found, have been scathingly denied. It stands yet to reason that the rôle of the paracelsian philosophy, through the german philosophy at the Hahnemann's time and the medical vitalism at its acme at that time, was crucial. Nevertheless, the direct part of contemporary physicians, specially english ones, as Nugent, J. Hunter and Cullen has been disregarded. Hahnemann, proudly, said nothing about his most important springs. The history of his ideas, the theorical and conceptual problems involved by the principle of similitude and not only the infinitesimality, show that homeopathy arises, not so much from experience as from theoretical ideas, and mind of system so current before C. Bernard. It can be easily showed that C. Bernard's epistemology, which is prevailing in biology today, is a logical obstacle to homeopathy.

History, 18th Century↗
PubMed2002

[History of homeopathy in Hungary 1820-1990].

This article tells the story of homeopathy in Hungary. After Hahnemann's discovery the theory found enthusiastic followers even in Hungary. The first generation of homeopathic physicians (Pál Almási Balogh, József Bakody, György Forgó and others) established a successful practice, although the doctrine had been banned in the Habsburg Empire from 1819 onwards. Thanks to the activity of the so-called second generation (Ferenc Hausmann, István Vezekényi Horner) Hahnemann's main work, the Organon was translated into Hungarian (1830) and the first homeopathic hospitals were founded in Köszeg (1833) and in Gyöngynös (1838). In 1837 the order banning homeopathical practice was removed, and in 1844 the Hungarian Parliament decided to establish a homeopathic department at the University of Pest. In 1847 Döme Argenti published his extradinarily successful homeopathic book Homeopathic Treatment of Various Illnesses". In the 1860s a new generation of physicians (Tihamér Almási Balogh, Lóránt Hausmann, Abrahám Szontagh and others) published the first Hungarian homeopathic periodicals the Hasonszenvi Közlöny and the Hasonszenvi Lapok and, at the same time, they founded the Society of Hungarian Homeopathic Physicians (1865), too. In 1870 the first homeopathic hospital, the Elisabethinum, opened its gates, and at the University of Pest two different homeopathic departments began to operate. At the end of the century however, homeopathy entered into a period of decline, due to the resistance of the conventional physicians and the successes of conventional medicine. Between the two World Wars only Gusztáv Schimert and his circle substained the theory and practice in Hungary, so successfully that in 1935 the International League of Homeopathy held its congress in Budapest. After the Second World War Schimert emigrated, and homeopathy was informally banned in Hungary (although the practice itself survived in secrecy). The Society of Hungarian Homeopathical Physicians was re-established only in 1991.

History, 19th Century↗
PubMed2000

[Benoît Mure, missionary of homeopathy in XIXth century].

Benoît Mure, born in Lyon the 4th of May 1809, was one of the most important person who spreaded the homeopathic medicine in the XIXth century, especially in Italy. Homeopathy is a therapeutic method which was founded by Christian Samuel Hahnemann, born in 1755 in Meissen. Benoît Mure, as he was ill, consulted an homeopathic doctor: Dr Sebastien Des Guidi, who cured him. From this time, he consacrated his whole life and personal fortune to spread homeopathy. In 1837 he created a dispensary in Palermo that will become further the "Royal Academy of Homeopathic Medicine". In 1839, he founded the dispensary of rue de la Harpe in Paris and teached homeopathy to many doctors. He spreaded also homeopathy in Brazil, then in Egypt. He died the 4th of March, 1858 in Cairo.

France↗
PubMed1984

[Homeopathy as seen by a nonhomeopathic otorhinolaryngologist].

After 50 years of medical practice, I have widened my horizon and am interested in any method that can relieve a patient's suffering. Be it an official or a parallel therapy. If Homeopathy is more and more successful it is because of the many failures in official medicine (Allopathy), especially regarding chronic diseases. Certain patients who are intoxicated by all sorts of drugs, consult the homeopath in search of cure. The homeopath believes that the general symptoms incriminated by experimental intoxication are the same as those manifested by the sick person, and they therefore prescribe the same medecine to obtain the cure. It is the methode of "similars". For example when a patient who has not been intoxicated by Belladonna presents the same symptoms of intoxication, Belladonna is prescribed by the homeopath. What is to be thought of Homeopathy? If we have not studied and experimented it sufficiently, it is illogical to criticise it. Prejudice is the practitioner's greatest enemy. To study Homeopathy is extremely arduous and requires daily study, because for Homeopathy even more than any other medical method: "One must study every day, because one forgets every day".

Homeopathy↗
PubMed1994

[Treatment of fever of unknown origin by homeopathy].

2 cases of fever of unknown origin (FUO) treated successfully by homeopathy are presented. The purpose is to show the effectiveness of homeopathy as adjuvant therapy for those in whom the full medical diagnostic process, assessment, and treatment are not effective. In a 12-year-old boy fever and abdominal pain persisted for several months despite various medical treatments. All symptoms disappeared following homeopathic treatment. In a 66-year-old man fever and other symptoms also disappeared after such treatment. We emphasize that homeopathy is not a substitute for the full conventional medical diagnostic investigation and treatment of FUO. Homeopathy should only be practiced by medical doctors to avoid, to the greatest extent, diagnostic and therapeutic errors.

Aged↗
PubMed1996

[Homeopathy from the viewpoint of the clinical pharmacologist].

The homeopathy is a therapeutic line developed about 170 years ago which is based on the sciences of the late 18th century. The homeopathy is founded (1) on the vitalism of Aristoteles, (2) on the examination of remedy reactions in healthy subjects as basis of the therapy of patients, (3) on the "simile" rule, that means the treatment of symptoms with remedies which produce similar symptoms of a mild intoxication in healthy subjects, (4) on the principle of potentiation with the opinion that low doses provoke stronger therapeutic effects, (5) on the individual finding of a remedy due to an extensive anamnesis and (6) on the principle of nosodes, that means the use of diluted body secretion due to infectious diseases for therapy. The therapeutic principles of homeopathy are based on insecure hypotheses and on the patient's information of improved behaviour. Thus, homeopathy does not agree with the present natural science.

Homeopathy↗
PubMed2006

Immunology and homeopathy. 2. Cells of the immune system and inflammation.

Here we describe the results of some experimental laboratory studies aimed at verifying the efficacy of high dilutions of substances and of homeopathic medicines in models of inflammation and immunity. Studies carried out on basophils, lymphocytes, granulocytes and fibroblasts are reviewed. This approach may help to test under controlled conditions the main principles of homeopathy such as 'similarity' of drug action at the cellular level and the effects of dilution/dynamization on the drug activity. The current situation is that few and rather small groups are working on laboratory models for homeopathy. Regarding the interpretation of data in view of the simile principle, we observe that there are different levels of similarity and that the laboratory data give support to this principle, but have not yet yielded the ultimate answer to the action mechanism of homeopathy. Evidence of the biological activity in vitro of highly diluted-dynamized solutions is slowly accumulating, with some conflicting reports. It is our hope that this review of literature unknown to most people will give an original and useful insight into the 'state-of-the-art' of homeopathy, without final conclusions 'for' or 'against' this modality. This kind of uncertainty may be difficult to accept, but is conceivably the most open-minded position now.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2003

Homeopathy for dementia.

BACKGROUND: Dementia is a common illness in older people and has major implications for individuals with the disease, their carers and society. A meta-analysis of population based studies in Europe found the prevalence of dementia in individuals over 65 to be 6.4%. Homeopathy (also spelt "homoeopathy") is a popular form of "complementary" or "alternative" treatment. Some studies have found evidence for efficacy of homeopathic treatment for some conditions, but any mechanism of action of the ultra molecular dilutions used in homeopathy is not comprehensible in terms of current scientific concepts. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the effectiveness and safety profile of homeopathically prepared medications used in treating dementia, as established by randomized controlled trials. SEARCH STRATEGY: The trials were identified from a search of the Specialized Register of the Cochrane Dementia and Cognitive Improvement Group on 10 May 2002 using the terms alum*, homeop*, "nat sulph" and "natrum sulphate". This Register contains records from all major medical databases. In addition the reviewers searched CISCOM, AMED and Hom-Inform. Leading homeopathic researchers, practitioners and manufacturers were also contacted. SELECTION CRITERIA: All types of randomized controlled trials with a sample size of more than 20 were considered. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: The database searches resulted in one trial being identified. After examining the abstract, a paper copy was obtained and independently assessed for inclusion by RM and JW. MAIN RESULTS: There were no studies that fulfilled the criteria for inclusion and no data to present. REVIEWER'S CONCLUSIONS: In view of the absence of evidence it is not possible to comment on the use of homeopathy in treating dementia. The extent of homeopathic prescribing for people with dementia is not clear and so it is difficult to comment on the importance of conducting trials in this area.

Dementia↗
PubMed2005

Homeopathy and mainstream medicine: a dialogue of the deaf?

Various definitions of complementary and alternative medicine have been proposed. Homeopathy is unique among CAM therapies in originating in European Enlightenment thought. It is controversial and scientifically implausible yet popular, widespread and durable. The result has been a longstanding 'dialogue of the deaf', with little progress or genuine discussion. Clinical collaboration and serious and scientific discourse concerning homeopathy is possible and should be pursued. The alternative is not that homeopathy disappears but that it is absorbed into a dis-affected medical counter-culture with adverse consequences, particularly for patients. The Royal London Homoeopathic Hospital is developing clinical integration and scientific collaboration with a major academic medical centre in London.

Cooperative Behavior↗
PubMed2005

Other complementary and alternative medicine modalities: acupuncture, magnets, reflexology, and homeopathy.

We sought to evaluate evidence for the benefits and risks of acupuncture, magnets, reflexology, and homeopathy for menopause-related symptoms. Search strategies included electronic searches of online databases (PubMed, PsycINFO, Medline), direct searches of target journals, and citation-index searches. A total of 12 intervention studies were identified for review. Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) treatments resulted in few side effects. The design, study populations, and findings across acupuncture studies varied. In uncontrolled studies, acupuncture improved subjective measures of hot flash frequency and vasomotor, somatic, physical, and psychological symptoms; however, improvements were not consistent. Controlled studies of acupuncture yielded even less consistent findings. Overall, controlled studies of acupuncture did not reliably improve hot flashes, sleep disturbances, or mood when compared with nonspecific acupuncture, estrogen therapy, or superficial needling. Homeopathy significantly improved subjective measures of hot flash frequency and severity, mood, fatigue, and anxiety in uncontrolled, open-label studies. Controlled studies of magnets and reflexology failed to demonstrate any increased benefit of treatment over placebo. There is a need for additional investigations of acupuncture and homeopathy for the treatment of hot flashes and other menopausal symptoms. However, existing evidence does not indicate a beneficial effect of magnets or reflexology in the treatment of hot flashes and other menopausal symptoms. Understanding whether, for whom, and how these interventions work is crucial to building the evidence base needed to evaluate any potential for these CAM therapies in the management of menopause-related symptoms.

Acupuncture Therapy↗
PubMed2004

Evaluation of a GP practice based homeopathy service.

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of a GP-led practice-based homeopathy service on symptoms, activity, wellbeing, general practice consultation rate and the use of conventional medications. Data were collected for 97 consecutive patients referred to a homeopathy service between 1 July 2002 and 23 January 2003. Self-rated symptom severity, activity limitation and wellbeing were scored on a seven-point scale at initial homeopathic consultation and via postal questionnaire at a mean follow-up time of 134 days. Primary symptoms improved by a mean of 2.49 points (95% confidence interval (CI) 2.08-2.90; P < 0.0001); secondary symptoms by 2.49 points (95% CI 2.00-2.98; P < 0.0001); ability to undertake activity by 2.43 points (95% CI 1.95-2.91; P < 0.0001) and wellbeing by 1.41 points (95% CI 1.02-1.80; P < 0.0001). Following use of the homeopathy service the mean 6-month general practice consultation rate decreased by 1.18 consultations per patient (95% CI 0.40-1.99; P = 0.004). Fifty-seven per cent of patients reduced or stopped taking their conventional medication, saving 2,807.30 Pounds per year. The main limitation of this study is the absence of a control group. The findings warrant further research including controlled studies and economic analysis.

Adolescent↗