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PubMedDate not supplied

[Towards an early diagnosis of gender identity disorders].

This paper deals with children's gender identity disorders on a bibliographical basis. Their etiopathogeny, their scarce but dramatical evolution towards transsexualism and their treatment are described. The record of a personal case illustrates these topics. A consistent basis, made of the various clinical patterns found by different authors is built and enriched, contributing to an earlier assessment of gender identity disorders.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2001

Gender identity: a multidimensional analysis with implications for psychosocial adjustment.

This study examined the relations between components of gender identity and psychosocial adjustment. The aspects of gender identity assessed were (a) feelings of psychological compatibility with one's gender (i.e.. feeling one is a typical member of one's sex and feeling content with one's biological sex), (b) feelings of pressure from parents, peers, and self for conformity to gender stereotypes. and (c) the sentiment that one's own sex is superior to the other (intergroup bias). Adjustment was assessed in terms of self-esteem and peer acceptance. Participants were 182 children in Grades 4 through 8. Felt gender compatibility (when operationalized as either self-perceived gender typicality or feelings of contentment with one's biological sex) was positively related to adjustment, whereas felt pressure and intergroup bias were negatively associated with adjustment. The results provide new insights into the role of gender identity in children's well-being, help identify sources of confusion in previous work, and suggest directions for future inquiry.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed1984

The development of sex role stereotypes in the third year: relationships to gender labeling, gender identity, sex-typed toy preference, and family characteristics.

The onset and development of preschoolers' awareness of sex role stereotypes, gender labeling, gender identity, and sex-typed toy preference were explored in 26-, 31-, and 36-month-old children. Gender labeling, gender identity, sex-typed toy preferences, and awareness of adult sex role differences were observed in significantly more 26-month-old children than would have been expected by chance. Verbal gender labeling was observed in a majority of 26-month-olds, while verbal and nonverbal gender identity were observed in a majority of 31-month-olds. Nonverbal gender labeling and awareness of adult sex role differences were observed in a majority of children by 36 months. No evidence of awareness of sex differences in children's toys was found in the majority of children at any age. Awareness of sex role differences in children's toys was not related to awareness of adult sex role differences. Brighter children were more aware of adult sex role differences. Sex-typed toy preference was not related to awareness of sex role differences but was related to gender identity. Predictors of sex role development included the mothers' employment, and the father's personality traits, attitudes toward women, and sex-typed activities in the home. Implications for theories of early sex role development are discussed.

Awareness↗
PubMed2001

Early childhood traumatic development and its impact on gender identity.

The author clarifies issues of gender identity typical to contemporary Western societies. Nowadays, we tend to emphasize self-autonomy as the main target of the individual's development. In adolescence this may cause many questions as to the adolescent's conception of his or her gender and sexual identity. These questions are the outcome of early development, and thus early traumas may impact the entire gender development. In this context, trauma includes not only major violations such as sexual abuse, terror attacks, and so forth, but also comprises events heretofore considered minor.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1996

Physical attractiveness of girls with gender identity disorder.

University students, masked to group status, judged the physical attractiveness of girls with gender identity disorder and clinical and normal control girls, whose photographs were taken at the time of assessment (mean age, 6.6 years). Each student made ratings for all girls for five traits: attractive, beautiful, cute, pretty, and ugly. A multivariate analysis of variance showed a significant group effect. Multiple comparisons of the significant univariate effects showed that the girls with gender identity disorder had significantly less attractive ratings than the normal control girls for the traits attractive, beautiful, and pretty who, in turn, had less attractive ratings than the clinical control girls. Girls with gender identity disorder and the normal controls also had less attractive ratings than the clinical controls for the trait cute. Correlational analyses showed that age was substantially negatively related to the attractiveness ratings in the group of girls with gender identity disorder, but was considerably less so in the two control groups. The extent to which the group differences in attractiveness were due to objective, structural differences in facial attractiveness vs. socially created, or subjective, processes is discussed.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1978

Gender identity in a group of retarded children.

The Michigan Gender Identity Test (MGIT) was administered to 52 retarded and 36 normal children to assess the acquisition of gender identity. This instrument required the ability to sort and categorize photographs of boys and girls wearing conventional clothing and with conventional hair-styles. As part of the test, each child was expected to recognize a self-photo and to be able to categorize it as a boy or a girl. In general, a significant correlation was found between MGIT performance and mental age for the retarded children. The performance of the normal children correlated significantly with both chronological age and mental age.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1991

Gender identity conflicts in adolescents as motivation for suicide.

One of the motivational factors for suicide in adolescents is examined in light of gender identity issues and conflicts. It is proposed that difficulties in the formation of a cohesive gender identity are related to the adolescent's motivation to attempt suicide. This paper makes use of Fast's (1984) distinction between "event-centered" and "self-centered" experiences in order to explore problems in the formation of gender identity with reference to regression to earlier stages of psychosexual development. Physiological changes and regressive pull may lead the adolescent to the "event-centered" mode of experience. Thus one minor event may become the focus of the adolescent's gender and self identities. The adolescent may then have regressive omnipotent fantasies of being able to change gender identity through suicidal acts.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed1994

[Disorder of gender identity in a child with asymmetric gonadal dysgenesis with complex karyotype abnormality].

BACKGROUND: Gender identity is influenced by genetic and hormonal factors and also by the sex of rearing. CASE REPORT: A child was born with ambiguous genitalia. Male sex assignment was made. Hypospadias and left inguinal hernia were present. The hernial sac contained an ovarian tissue. Plasma testosterone, 17-OH progesterone, cortisone levels were normal as were basal FSH and LH levels. There was a vagina but no uterus. The karyotype showed 45X/46XY mosaicism. The testis in the right scrotum was removed and vulvoplasty was performed at the age of 10 months; the patient was than raised as a female. Several courses of reconstructive genital surgery were necessary between 1 and 8 years of age. The girl suffered from trichotillomania and sleep disorders from the age of 4 years and learning difficulties and social phobia from the age of 8. When 11.5 years-old, she had clinical features of Turner's syndrome, was depressive but appeared to prefer male playmates. CONCLUSION: Two mechanisms may explain alterations in gender identity in this patient with asymmetric gonadal dysgenesis; 1) early and prolonged androgen exposure as seen in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia; 2) insufficient counselling with parents regarding questions of gender identity.

Child↗
PubMed2004

The shaping of masculinity: Revisioning boys turning away from their mothers to construct male gender identity.

This paper offers an understanding of the nature of the internalization processes involved in the shaping of male gender identity founded on the boy's unique struggles in separating from his mother. The underpinning for the initial development of a sense of masculinity is reconsidered as the author questions the widely held idea of Greenson and Stoller that a boy normatively has to 'dis-identify' from his mother to create his gender identity. Import rather is placed on the conscious and unconscious aspects of the mother's (and father's) pre-oedipal and oedipal relationship with their little boy in order better to understand the nature of the boy's unique identifications and subsequent sense of masculinity. Both the security of the boy's attachment to his mother, in providing the foundation for a transitional turning to an 'other', and the mother's capacity to reflect upon and recognize her own, as well as the father's and her son's, subjectivity and maleness, are crucial in comprehending boys' 'attachment-individuation' process. Likewise, the unconscious paternal and maternal imagos and identifications of both the boy's mother and father, as well as the father's pre-oedipal relationship with his little boy and the boy's mother, are extremely significant in shaping a son's gender identity. The author argues that these early maternal (and paternal) identifications live on in every male and continue to impact the sense of maleness in a dialectical interplay throughout the life span. A maturing gender identity develops from integrating these early, pre-oedipal maternal identifications that no longer need be repudiated nor defensively organized as polarized gender splitting.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1991

Interim report of the DSM-IV Subcommittee on Gender Identity Disorders.

This article summarizes the discussions and recommendations of the DSM-IV Subcommittee on Gender Identity Disorders, a subcommittee of the Child Psychiatry Work Group, regarding diagnostic issues. The issues reviewed include placement in the nomenclature, the concept of a spectrum of gender dysphoria rather than discrete levels of symptomatology, criticisms of current diagnostic criteria, subtyping by sexual orientation, and proposed changes in diagnostic criteria for the current DSM-III-R diagnoses of Gender Identity Disorder of Childhood, Transsexualism, and Gender Identity Disorder of Adolescence or Adulthood, Nontranssexual Type.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1979

Androgens and the evolution of male-gender identity among male pseudohermaphrodites with 5alpha-reductase deficiency.

To determine the contribution of androgens to the formation of male-gender identity, we studied male pseudohermaphrodites who had decreased dihydrotestosterone production due to 5 alpha-reductase deficiency. These subjects were born with female-appearing external genitalia and were raised as girls. They have plasma testosterone levels in the high normal range, show an excellent response to testosterone and are unique models for evaluating the effect of testosterone, as compared with a female upbringing, in determining gender identity. Eighteen of 38 affected subjects were unambiguously raised as girls, yet during or after puberty, 17 of 18 changed to a male-gender identity and 16 of 18 to a male-gender role. Thus, exposure of the brain to normal levels of testosterone in utero, neonatally and at puberty appears to contribute substantially to the formation of male-gender identity. These subjects demonstrate that in the absence of sociocultural factors that could interrupt the natural sequence of events, the effect of testosterone predominates, over-riding the effect of rearing as girls.

3-Oxo-5-alpha-Steroid 4-Dehydrogenase↗
PubMed1978

Gender identity problems of children and adolescents: the establishment of a special clinic.

Theoretical accounts of the origins of gender identity disturbance are reviewed and then followed by a description of the establishment of a child and adolescent gender identity clinic. Clinical impressions of 16 gender disturbed patients are presented and the position is taken that most patients manifested a confused, as opposed to fixed, core gender identity.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Gender identity disorders in children and adolescents.

Gender identity disorders in children and adolescents are uncommon and complex conditions. They are often associated with emotional and behavioural difficulties. Intense distress is often experienced, particularly in adolescence. Treatment and prevention of the emotional and behavioural problems are essential, even if the atypical gender development remains unchanged.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1997

Sex differences in referral rates of children with gender identity disorder: some hypotheses.

From 1978 through 1995, a sex ratio of 6.6:1 of boys to girls (N = 275) was observed for children referred to a specificity clinic for gender identity disorder. This article attempts to evaluate several hypotheses regarding the marked sex disparity in referral rates. The sexes did not differ on four demographic variables (age at referral, IQ, and parent's social class and marital status) and on five indices of general behavior problems on the Child Behavior Checklist; in addition, there was only equivocal evidence that boys with gender identity disorder had significantly poorer peer relations than girls with gender identity disorder. Although the percentage of boys and girls who met the complete DSM-III-R criteria for gender identity disorder was comparable, other measures of sex-typed behavior showed that the girls had more extreme cross-gender behavior than the boys. Coupled with external evidence that cross-gender behavior is less tolerated in boys than in girls by both peers and adults, it is concluded that social factors partly account for the sex difference in referral rates. Girls appear to require a higher threshold than boys for cross-gender behavior before they are referred for clinical assessment.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed1997

Gender identity disorder: a review of the past 10 years.

OBJECTIVE: To review the clinically relevant literature on gender identity disorder (GID) in children and adolescents over the past 10 years. METHOD: All literature referring to gender identity and children or adolescents from 1985 on was reviewed. RESULTS: Changes in the DSM-IV nomenclature include (1) adoption of the single diagnosis of GID to apply to children, adolescents, and adults; (2) changes in the format of the criteria; and (3) placement in the section "Sexual and Gender Identity Disorders." Rates of associated psychopathology in children with GID are comparable with those in children with other psychiatric disorders, particularly disorders that are internalizing in form. Biological and psychosocial factors thought to be relevant in the development of GID are reviewed. CONCLUSIONS: Research is required to elucidate the complicated interaction between biological and psychosocial factors in the development of GID and to evaluate treatment efficacy.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

A parent-report Gender Identity Questionnaire for Children: A cross-national, cross-clinic comparative analysis.

A one-factor, 14-item parent-report Gender Identity Questionnaire for Children (GIQC) was developed in a sample of 325 clinic-referred children with gender identity problems and 504 controls from Toronto, Canada (Johnson et al., 2004). In this study, we report a cross-national, cross-clinic comparative analysis of the GIQC on gender-referred children (N = 338) from Toronto and gender-referred children (N = 175) from Utrecht, The Netherlands. Across clinics, the results showed both similarities and differences. Gender-referred boys from Utrecht had a significantly higher total score (indicating more cross-gender behavior) than did gender-referred boys from Toronto, but there was no significant difference for girls. In the Toronto sample, the gender-referred girls had a significantly higher total score than the gender-referred boys, but there was no significant sex difference in the Utrecht sample. Across both clinics, gender-referred children who met the complete DSM criteria for gender identity disorder (GID) had a significantly higher cross-gender score than the gender-referred children who were subthreshold for GID (Cohen's d = 1.11). The results of this study provide the first empirical evidence of relative similarity in cross-gender behavior in a sample of gender-referred children from western Europe when compared to North American children. The results also provide some support for cross-clinic consistency in clinician-based diagnosis of GID.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Gender identity disorder in adolescence: outcomes of psychotherapy.

Gender identity disorder (GID) is characterized by strong and persistent cross-gender identification and by persistent discomfort with one's sex. This paper reviews reports of GID in which adolescent psychotherapy patients initially desired sex reassignment. In addition, four case studies of adolescents with GID, demonstrating different outcomes of psychotherapy, are presented. It is concluded that great caution must be exercised when treating adolescents with GID, and that sex reassignment must not be started before patients have reached eighteen years of age.

Adolescent↗