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PubMed2004

The ups and downs of face perception: evidence for holistic encoding of upright and inverted faces.

A visual-search task was used to investigate the influence of facial organisation on discrimination of an internal facial feature. Participants searched for a downturned mouth in arrays of one to six faces that differed only in the target feature, with distractor faces containing an upturned mouth. Feature search was tested in four different face contexts: upright unaltered faces, inverted unaltered faces, upright faces in which the internal features were scrambled, or inverted scrambled faces. Normal face organisation facilitated feature search in upright faces, but slowed it in inverted faces. These findings demonstrate an interdependence of features and their configuration in the perceptual analysis of both upright and inverted faces.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Sex-contingent face after-effects suggest distinct neural populations code male and female faces.

Exposure to faces biases perceptions of subsequently viewed faces. Faces similar to those seen previously are judged more normal and attractive than they were prior to exposure. Here we show sex-contingent after-effects following adaptation to eye-spacing (experiment 1), facial identity (experiment 2) and masculinity (experiment 3). Viewing faces of one sex with increased eye-spacing and faces of the other sex with decreased eye-spacing simultaneously induced opposite after-effects for male and female faces (assessed by normality judgments). Viewing faces transformed in identity or masculinity increased preferences for novel faces with characteristics similar to those viewed only when the sex of the faces presented in the adaptation phase and in post-adaptation preference tests were congruent. Because after-effects reflect changes in responses of neural populations that code faces, our findings indicate that distinct neural populations code male and female faces.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Identification of own-race and other-race faces: implications for the representation of race in face space.

Own-race faces are recognized more easily than faces of a different, unfamiliar race. According to the multidimensional space (MDS) framework, the poor discriminability of other-race faces is due to their being more densely clustered in face space than own-race faces. Multidimensional scaling analyses of similarity ratings (Caucasian participants, n = 22) showed that other-race (Chinese) faces are more densely clustered in face space. We applied a formal model to test whether the spatial location of face stimuli could account for identification accuracy of another group of Caucasian participants (n = 30). As expected, own-race (Caucasian) faces were identified more accurately (higher hit rate, lower false alarms, and higher A') than other-race faces, which were more densely clustered than own-race faces. A quantitative model successfully predicted identification performance from the spatial locations of the stimuli. The results are discussed in relation to the standard MDS account of race effects and also an alternative "race-feature" hypothesis.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Holistic face processing is mature at 4 years of age: evidence from the composite face effect.

Although it is acknowledged that adults integrate features into a representation of the whole face, there is still some disagreement about the onset and developmental course of holistic face processing. We tested adults and children from 4 to 6 years of age with the same paradigm measuring holistic face processing through an adaptation of the composite face effect [Young, A. W., Hellawell, D., & Hay, D. C. (1987). Configurational information in face perception. Perception, 16, 747-759]. In Experiment 1, only 6-year-old children and adults tended to perceive the two identical top parts as different, suggesting that holistic face processing emerged at 6 years of age. However, Experiment 2 suggested that these results could be due to a response bias in children that was cancelled out by always presenting two faces in the same format on each trial. In this condition, all age groups present strong composite face effects, suggesting that holistic face processing is mature as early as after 4 years of experience with faces.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Configural masking of faces: evidence for high-level interactions in face perception.

The perception of a stimulus can be impaired when presented in the context of a masking pattern. To determine the timing and the nature of face processing, the effect of various masks on the discriminability of faces was investigated. Results reveal a strong configural effect: the magnitude of masking depends on the similarity between mask and target. Masking is absent for non-face masks (noise, houses), modest for scrambled and inverted faces and strongest for upright faces, even when they differ in size, gender or viewpoint from the targets. This suggests an extra-striate location for the masking (possibly FFA). Reduced but significant masking for isolated face parts (internal features or head shape) is consistent with holistic computations in face perception. The duration over which a face mask can impair face discrimination (130 ms) is markedly longer than previously assumed and is sufficient for iterative and feedback computations to be part of face processing.

Contrast Sensitivity↗
PubMed1997

Discrimination and association processes for faces and non-faces: the effect of rotation.

Most current theories of face perception claim that inversion leaves the coding of non-face stimuli largely unaffected, while causing a qualitative change in the coding of faces. Empirical support for this hypothesis mainly stems from recognition studies which typically show a larger inversion decrement for faces than for other stimuli. Several recent studies using experimental paradigms that do not contain a substantial memory component have however yielded contradicting results. This observation suggests that the disproportionate effect of inversion for faces might be related to the presence, or absence, of a memory component in the experimental task. In order to explore this hypothesis we investigated the effect of inversion within a discrimination learning paradigm, which contains a memory component comparable to that included in a recognition paradigm. We compared the effect of rotation on discrimination and association processes for faces and cars, Subjects learned to discriminate pairs of similar faces and similar cars and to associated them with neutral responses. The stimulus pairs were presented upright, inverted, and additionally in two intermediate orientations. We found that discrimination performance was generally better for faces than for cars and that associations were learned faster for faces than for cars. However, we did not find any evidence that rotation affected discrimination and association processes for faces differently than for cars. In this sense, our results provide no evidence for the hypothesis that memory processes are responsible for disproportionate effect of inversion which is found in recognition experiments.

Adult↗
PubMed1991

Young and old faces in young and old heads: the factor of age in face recognition.

Research on aging and face recognition has shown age-related differences that are reflected most clearly in false-alarm errors. Elderly subjects exceed young adults in false recognitions that new faces are "old." To determine if this difference between young and elderly subjects might differ for young versus elderly faces, an experiment was conducted in which half of the young and elderly subjects studied and recognized young and middle-aged faces, and the remainder studied and recognized middle-aged and elderly faces. Replicating prior research, age-related deficits in recognition accuracy (d') were reduced with older faces, and this effect generalized from measures of face recognition to measures of face-picture recognition. However, the age-related increase in false recognitions of faces was not affected by face age.

Adult↗
PubMed1979

Identification of familiar and unfamiliar faces from internal and external features: some implications for theories of face recognition.

Three experiments are reported in which recognition of faces from whole faces or internal or external features was compared. In the first experiment, where the faces were of famous people, an advantage was found for identification from internal features. In the second experiment involving unfamiliar faces, however, no difference was found in recognition rates when subjects were given the internal or the external features. In a third experiment famous faces were presented and mixed with other famous faces for a recognition test. As in experiment 1, better recognition occurred from internals as compared with external features. It is argued that the internal representation for familiar faces may be qualitatively different from that for face seen just once. In particular some advantage in feature saliency may accrue to the internal or 'expressive' features of familiar faces. The implications of these results are considered in relation to general theories of face perception and recognition.

Discrimination Learning↗
PubMed2000

Comparison of the morphology of the "cleft face" and the normal face: defining the anthropometric differences.

Morphological characteristics of the "cleft face" were analyzed by calculating proportion indices in young adults who had undergone surgery in childhood for cleft lip and/or palate: 592 in 37 subjects with unilateral clefts and 432 in 27 with bilateral clefts. Three areas of the face with 16 indices based on 12 projective linear measurements were analyzed in each subject: 5 indices in the general face, 6 in the upper face, and 5 in the lower. Although a balanced relationship was found in two thirds of the indices assessed, severe disproportions, which greatly influence appearance, were noted in about one quarter. In the general face, the most frequent abnormal anthropometric findings contributing to severe disproportions were small upper-face height and a severely high or moderately narrow mandible. In the soft tissues, disproportions included wide nose, small nasal tip protrusion, and short or long columella. Deviations from normality were rarely noted in the nose and upper-lip height, mouth width, total facial height, and width of the upper face. In the upper face, severe disproportions occurred much more frequently in bilateral cleft subjects (67.6%) than in unilateral clefts (30.3%). In the lower face, however, severe disproportions were twice as frequent among unilateral clefts (39.4%) than bilateral (14.7%). The results, although interesting, require complementary preoperative data for reliable analysis of the adult "cleft face."

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Facial resemblance increases the attractiveness of same-sex faces more than other-sex faces.

Our reactions to facial self-resemblance could reflect either specialized responses to cues of kinship or by-products of the general perceptual mechanisms of face encoding and mere exposure. The adaptive hypothesis predicts differences in reactions to self-resemblance in mating and prosocial contexts, while the by-product hypothesis does not. Using face images that were digitally transformed to resemble participants, I showed that the effects of resemblance on attractiveness judgements depended on both the sex of the judge and the sex of the face being judged: facial resemblance increased attractiveness judgements of same-sex faces more than other-sex faces, despite the use of identical procedures to manipulate resemblance. A control experiment indicated these effects were caused neither by lower resemblance of other-sex faces than same-sex faces, nor by an increased perception of averageness or familiarity of same-sex faces due to prototyping or mere exposure affecting only same-sex faces. The differential impact of self-resemblance on our perception of same-sex and other-sex faces supports the hypothesis that humans use facial resemblance as a cue of kinship.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Animal and human faces in natural scenes: How specific to human faces is the N170 ERP component?

The N170 is an event-related potential component reported to be very sensitive to human face stimuli. This study investigated the specificity of the N170, as well as its sensitivity to inversion and task status when subjects had to categorize either human or animal faces in the context of upright and inverted natural scenes. A conspicuous N170 was recorded for both face categories. Pictures of animal faces were associated with a N170 of similar amplitude compared to pictures of human faces, but with delayed peak latency. Picture inversion enhanced N170 amplitude for human faces and delayed its peak for both human and animal faces. Finally, whether processed as targets or non-targets, depending on the task, both human and animal face N170 were identical. Thus, human faces in natural scenes elicit a clear but non-specific N170 that is not modulated by task status. What appears to be specific to human faces is the strength of the inversion effect.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Why are average faces attractive? The effect of view and averageness on the attractiveness of female faces.

Images of faces manipulated to make their shapes closer to the average are perceived as more attractive. The influences of symmetry and averageness are often confounded in studies based on full-face views of faces. Two experiments are reported that compared the effect of manipulating the averageness of female faces in profile and full-face views. Use of a profile view allows a face to be "morphed" toward an average shape without creating an image that becomes more symmetrical. Faces morphed toward the average were perceived as more attractive in both views, but the effect was significantly stronger for full-face views. Both full-face and profile views morphed away from the average shape were perceived as less attractive. It is concluded that the effect of averageness is independent of any effect of symmetry on the perceived attractiveness of female faces.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1996

[Effects of subjective-familiarity vs. unfamiliarity of faces on face recognition in preschool children].

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of subjective-familiarity vs. unfamiliarity and the age of faces (adult faces vs. child faces) on immediate and delayed face recognition in preschool children. Subjective-familiarity is a feeling that one takes unfamiliar faces as resembling actual familiar ones. Fifty-six preschool children were given instructions which made them focus on either Subjectively Familiar Face (SFF) or Unfamiliar Face (UF), and No-Instruction (NI) condition was set as a control. In the SFF condition the subjects were required to judge whether the faces resembled someone they knew; in the UF condition they were required to pick out faces new to them. The major findings were that the SFF instruction facilitated recognition scores (d') and this tendency was especially strong in the delayed test. These results were interpreted as showing that the SFF instruction enhanced information processing at the constructional coding level. One of the reasons why preschool children are deficient in recognizing unfamiliar faces is that they have not yet developed the ability to process information at the constructional coding level.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

[Effects of impression of faces on recognition of changes in face arrays: addition versus deletion].

A study was conducted examine whether the asymmetric confusability effect was generalized to an array of face photographs, and furthermore to investigate how the impression of faces affected the recognition of addition and deletion of the faces. In a preliminary investigation, 27 subjects rated the impression of 83 face photographs, and the photographs to be used in the present study were chosen on the basis of the impression scores. In the study, 40 subjects saw 14 photographs consisted of three or four faces and took a recognition test of unchanged photographs and changed photographs with a specific face added or deleted. The data showed that (a) the addition superiority was not found in the recognition of changes in face arrays; (b) the impression of faces differentially affected the recognition of addition and deletion changes in face arrays. These results suggest that the mechanism underlying the recognition of the deletion of a face may be different from that of addition.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

The fusiform face area: a module in human extrastriate cortex specialized for face perception.

Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), we found an area in the fusiform gyrus in 12 of the 15 subjects tested that was significantly more active when the subjects viewed faces than when they viewed assorted common objects. This face activation was used to define a specific region of interest individually for each subject, within which several new tests of face specificity were run. In each of five subjects tested, the predefined candidate "face area" also responded significantly more strongly to passive viewing of (1) intact than scrambled two-tone faces, (2) full front-view face photos than front-view photos of houses, and (in a different set of five subjects) (3) three-quarter-view face photos (with hair concealed) than photos of human hands; it also responded more strongly during (4) a consecutive matching task performed on three-quarter-view faces versus hands. Our technique of running multiple tests applied to the same region defined functionally within individual subjects provides a solution to two common problems in functional imaging: (1) the requirement to correct for multiple statistical comparisons and (2) the inevitable ambiguity in the interpretation of any study in which only two or three conditions are compared. Our data allow us to reject alternative accounts of the function of the fusiform face area (area "FF") that appeal to visual attention, subordinate-level classification, or general processing of any animate or human forms, demonstrating that this region is selectively involved in the perception of faces.

Adult↗
PubMed1990

Asymmetries in face perception: component processes, face specificity and expertise effects.

Three experiments were carried out to analyze the component processes contributing to observed asymmetries in face perception, to determine whether these asymmetries occur for complex visuospatial stimuli other than human faces, and to investigate the effects of expertise on the asymmetries. Two component processes contributed to the observed asymmetries: perceptual bias (PB) in the observer and face asymmetries (FA). There was no PB effect for complex visuospatial stimuli other than human faces (landscapes, abstract paintings and animal faces). Expertise effects were investigated by examining the judgments of Chinese and Caucasian subjects for own-race and other-race faces. A PB was found for both Caucasian and Chinese faces, but the size of the effect was not related unequivocally to expertise. Caucasian subjects showed a PB for own-race faces only, but Chinese subjects showed a PB for both Chinese and Caucasian faces. There was no FA effect for Chinese faces, even when the composites were perceived as more dissimilar than the Caucasian composites, for which there was an FA effect. The implications of these results for the theoretical interpretation of perceptual asymmetries are discussed.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed2003

Applicant reactions to face-to-face and technology-mediated interviews: a field investigation.

This field study examined applicant reactions (N = 802) toward face-to-face as compared with technology-mediated interviews (through videoconferencing or by telephone) for 346 organizations. Face-to-face interviews were perceived as more fair and led to higher job acceptance intentions than were videoconferencing and telephone interviews. Perceived interview outcomes were higher with face-to-face and telephone interviews over videoconferencing. Self-monitoring moderated the relationship between interview medium and perceptions of fairness. Specifically, this relationship was (a). positive for face-to-face, (b). negative for telephone, and (c). nonsignificant for videoconferencing interviews. Moreover, the number of offers an applicant received moderated the relationship between interview medium over, and perceived fairness. The relationship between number of offers and perceived fairness was positive for face-to-face and negative for technology-mediated interviews.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Comparison of telephone vs face-to-face interviews in the assessment of dietary intake by the 24 h recall EPIC SOFT program--the Norwegian calibration study.

OBJECTIVE: To compare food group intakes in grams, total energy and energy contribution from macronutrients between two random samples of women, using a standardized computer program (EPIC SOFT) with either a face-to-face or a telephone 24 h recall interview design. METHODS: Two groups of Norwegian women living in Tromsø were drawn at random from the Norwegian Women and Cancer Study (NOWAC) cohort. The EPIC SOFT computer program was used to conduct single 24 h dietary recalls either by telephone or face to face. For the latter, 160 women were invited, of whom 111 responded positively (crude response rate=69.4%) and 102 were interviewed. For the telephone option, 180 were invited to participate, 109 responded positively (crude response rate=60.6%) and 103 were interviewed. RESULTS: The two groups of women were similar with respect to age, body mass index, basal metabolic rate, smoking, education, physical activity and special diet status. No statistically significant difference in dietary intake was found between interviews conducted by telephone and face-to-face, except for 'egg and egg products' (P<0.01), for which intake was higher in the telephone group. Total energy intake differed, but the difference was attributable to one interviewer. The distribution of energy-contributing nutrients was not significantly different between groups, except for reported energy percentage from protein (P=0.02), which was significantly higher in the face-to-face group. CONCLUSION: The telephone vs face-to-face interview design did not influence recalled diet when using the EPIC SOFT program.

Calibration↗