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PubMed1997

Ultraviolet radiation from F and K stars and implications for planetary habitability.

Now that extrasolar planets have been found, it is timely to ask whether some of them might be suitable for life. Climatic constraints on planetary habitability indicate that a reasonably wide habitable zone exists around main sequence stars with spectral types in the early-F to mid-K range. However, it has not been demonstrated that planets orbiting such stars would be habitable when biologically-damaging energetic radiation is also considered. The large amounts of UV radiation emitted by early-type stars have been suggested to pose a problem for evolving life in their vicinity. But one might also argue that the real problem lies with late-type stars, which emit proportionally less radiation at the short wavelengths (lambda < 200 nm) required to split O2 and initiate ozone formation. We show here that neither of these concerns is necessarily fatal to the evolution of advanced life: Earth-like planets orbiting F and K stars may well receive less harmful UV radiation at their surfaces than does the Earth itself.

Astronomical Phenomena↗
PubMed2003

Physical simulation for low-energy astrobiology environmental scenarios.

Speculations about the extent of life of independent origin and the potential for sustaining Earth-based life in subsurface environments on both Europa and Mars are of current and relevant interest. Theoretical modeling based on chemical energetics has demonstrated potential options for viable biochemical metabolism (metabolic pathways) in these types of environments. Also, similar environments on Earth show microbial activity. However, actual physical simulation testing of specific environments is required to confidently determine the interplay of various physical and chemical parameters on the viability of relevant metabolic pathways. This testing is required to determine the potential to sustain life in these environments on a specific scenario by scenario basis. This study examines the justification, design, and fabrication of, as well as the culture selection and screening for, a psychrophilic/halophilic/anaerobic digester. This digester is specifically designed to conform to physical testing needs of research relating to potential extent physical environments on Europa and other planetary bodies in the Solar System. The study is a long-term effort and is currently in an early phase, with only screening-level data at this time. Full study results will likely take an additional 2 years. However, researchers in electromagnetic biosignature and in situ instrument development should be aware of the study at this time, as they are invited to participate in planning for future applications of the digester facility.

Acetates↗
PubMed1998

Accretion and differentiation of carbon in the early Earth.

The abundance of C in carbonaceous and ordinary chondrites decreases exponentially with increasing shock pressure as inferred from the petrologic shock classification of Scott et al. [Scott, E.R.D., Keil, K., Stoffler, D., 1992. Shock metamorphism of carbonaceous chondrites. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 56, 4281-4293] and Stoffler et al. [Stoffler, D., Keil, K., Scott, E.R.D., 1991. Shock metamorphism of ordinary chondrites. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 55, 3845-3867]. This confirms the experimental results of Tyburczy et al. [Tyburczy, J.A., Frisch, B., Ahrens, T.J., 1986. Shock-induced volatile loss from a carbonaceous chondrite: implications for planetary accretion. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 80, 201-207] on shock-induced devolatization of the Murchison meteorite showing that carbonaceous chondrites appear to be completely devolatilized at impact velocities greater than 2 km s-1. Both of these results suggest that C incorporation would have been most efficient in the early stages of accretion, and that the primordial C content of the Earth was between 10(24) and 10(25) g C (1-10% efficiency of incorporation). This estimate agrees well with the value of 3-7 x 10(24) g C based on the atmospheric abundance of 36Ar and the chondritic C/36Ar (Marty and Jambon, 1987). Several observations suggest that C likely was incorporated into the Earth's core during accretion. (1) Graphite and carbides are commonly present in iron meteorites, and those iron meteorites with Widmanstatten patterns reflecting the slowest cooling rates (mostly Group I and IIIb) contain the highest C abundances. The C abundance-cooling rate correlation is consistent with dissolution of C into Fe-Ni liquids that segregated to form the cores of the iron meteorite parent bodies. (2) The carbon isotopic composition of graphite in iron meteorites exhibits a uniform value of -5% [Deines, P., Wickman, F.E. 1973. The isotopic composition of 'graphitic' carbon from iron meteorites and some remarks on the troilitic sulfur of iron meteorites. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 37, 1295-1319; Deines, P., Wickman, F.E., 1975. A contribution to the stable carbon isotope geochemistry of iron meteorites. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 39, 547-557] identical to the mode in the distribution found in diamonds, carbonatites and oceanic basalts [Mattey, D.P., 1987. Carbon isotopes in the mantle. Terra Cognita 7, 31-37]. (3) The room pressure solubility of C in molten iron is 4.3 wt% C. Phase equilibria confirm that the Fe-C eutectic persists to 12 GPa, and thermochemical calculations for the Fe-C-S system by Wood [Wood, B.J., 1993. Carbon in the core. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 117, 593-607] predict that C is soluble in Fe liquids at core pressures. The abundance of 36Ar in chondrites decreases exponentially with increasing shock pressure as observed for C. It is well known that noble gases are positively correlated and physically associated with C in meteorites [e.g. Otting, W., Zahringer J., 1967. Total carbon content and primordial rare gases in chondrites. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 31, 1949-1960; Reynolds, J.H., Frick, U., Niel, J.M., Phinney, D.L., 1978. Rare-gas-rich separates from carbonaceous chondrites. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 42, 1775-1797]. This suggests a mechanism by which primordial He and other noble gases may have incorporated into the Earth during accretion. The abundance of He in the primordial Earth required to sustain the modern He flux for 4 Ga (assuming a planetary 3 He/4 He; Reynolds et al. [Reynolds, J.H., Frick, U., Niel, J.M., Phinney, D.L., 1978. Rare-gas-rich separates from carbonaceous chondrites. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 42, 1775-1797] is calculated to be > or = 10(-8) cm3 g-1. This minimum estimate is consistent with a 1-10% efficiency of noble gas retention during accretion and the observed abundance of He in carbonaceous chondrites (10(-5) to 10(-4) cm3 g-1 excluding spallogenic contributions).

Argon↗
PubMed1995

A slightly more massive young Sun as an explanation for warm temperatures on early Mars.

The valley network channels on the heavily cratered ancient surface of Mars suggest the presence of liquid water approximately 3.8 Gyr ago. However, the implied warm climate is difficult to explain in the context of the standard solar model, even allowing for the maximum CO2 greenhouse heating. In this paper we investigate the astronomical and planetary implications of a nonstandard solar model in which the zero-age, main-sequence Sun had a mass of 1.05 +/- 0.02 M solar. The excess mass was subsequently lost in a solar wind during the first 1.2(-0.2, +0.4) Gyr of the Sun's main sequence phase. The implied mass-loss rate of 4(+3, -2) x 10(-11) M solar yr-1, or about 10(3)x that of the current Sun, may be detectable in several nearby young solar type stars.

Astronomy↗
PubMed2002

Gaia as a complex adaptive system.

We define the Gaia system of life and its environment on Earth, review the status of the Gaia theory, introduce potentially relevant concepts from complexity theory, then try to apply them to Gaia. We consider whether Gaia is a complex adaptive system (CAS) in terms of its behaviour and suggest that the system is self-organizing but does not reside in a critical state. Gaia has supported abundant life for most of the last 3.8 Gyr. Large perturbations have occasionally suppressed life but the system has always recovered without losing the capacity for large-scale free energy capture and recycling of essential elements. To illustrate how complexity theory can help us understand the emergence of planetary-scale order, we present a simple cellular automata (CA) model of the imaginary planet Daisyworld. This exhibits emergent self-regulation as a consequence of feedback coupling between life and its environment. Local spatial interaction, which was absent from the original model, can destabilize the system by generating bifurcation regimes. Variation and natural selection tend to remove this instability. With mutation in the model system, it exhibits self-organizing adaptive behaviour in its response to forcing. We close by suggesting how artificial life ('Alife') techniques may enable more comprehensive feasibility tests of Gaia.

Earth, Planet↗
PubMed1994

Early Mars: how warm and how wet?

Early in its history, Mars underwent fluvial erosion that has been interpreted as evidence for a warmer, wetter climate. However, no atmosphere composed of only CO2 and H2O appears capable of producing mean planetary temperatures even close to 0 degrees C. Rather than by precipitation, aquifer recharge and ground water seepage may have been enabled by hydrothermal convection driven by geothermal heat and heat associated with impacts. Some climatic warming was probably necessary to allow water to flow for long distances across the surface. Modest warming could be provided by even a low-pressure CO2 atmosphere if it was supplemented with small amounts of CH4, NH3, or SO2. Episodic excursions to high obliquities may also have raised temperatures over some portions of the planet's surface.

Ammonia↗
PubMed1999

The formation of Uranus and Neptune in the Jupiter-Saturn region of the Solar System.

Planets are believed to have formed through the accumulation of a large number of small bodies. In the case of the gas-giant planets Jupiter and Saturn, they accreted a significant amount of gas directly from the protosolar nebula after accumulating solid cores of about 5-15 Earth masses. Such models, however, have been unable to produce the smaller ice giants Uranus and Neptune at their present locations, because in that region of the Solar System the small planetary bodies will have been more widely spaced, and less tightly bound gravitationally to the Sun. When applied to the current Jupiter-Saturn zone, a recent theory predicts that, in addition to the solid cores of Jupiter and Saturn, two or three other solid bodies of comparable mass are likely to have formed. Here we report the results of model calculations that demonstrate that such cores will have been gravitationally scattered outwards as Jupiter, and perhaps Saturn, accreted nebular gas. The orbits of these cores then evolve into orbits that resemble those of Uranus and Neptune, as a result of gravitational interactions with the small bodies in the outer disk of the protosolar nebula.

Evolution, Planetary↗
PubMed1999

Irradiated interplanetary dust particles as a possible solution for the deuterium/hydrogen paradox of Earth's oceans.

Determining the source of Earth's oceans is a longstanding problem in planetary science. Possible sources of water include water ice or water of hydration of silicate minerals in the original material from which the bulk Earth accreted and water brought in by late-arriving planetesimals during the heavy bombardment period (4.5-3.8 Gyr ago) [Chyba, 1989, 1991]. Comets are an attractive source of water because their origin in the outer solar system is consistent with the long timescale for heavy bombardment. However, the high deuterium/hydrogen (D/H) ratio of the three comets that have been studied, Halley, Hyakutake, and Hale-Bopp, indicates that Earth must have had a source with a low-D/H ratio as well. Here we suggest that solar wind-implanted hydrogen on interplanetary dust particles (IDPs) provided the necessary low-D/H component of Earth's water inventory.

Cosmic Dust↗
PubMed1964

The atmospheres of Mars, Venus and Jupiter.

The general properties of the atmospheres of Mars, Venus and Jupiter are reviewed. The evolutionary processes of planetary atmospheres are outlined as an introduction to a detailed discussion of the structure of the atmospheres of other planets. The most recent observational results indicate that the surface pressure on Mars could be as low as 20 mb, and the amount of CO2 may have a mixing ratio as high as 25% by volume. For Venus, the Mariner II results suggest that the surface temperature may actually be of the order of 600 degrees K. Also there are indications that the surface pressure on Venus could be approximately 100 atm., with the atmosphere mainly composed of N2. In the case of Jupiter, recent theoretical investigations of the atmosphere below the clouds suggest, that there may be regions in the atmosphere of very high density and pressure but at relatively low temperature, creating conditions possibly favorable to the occurrence of complex organic reactions.

Atmosphere↗
PubMed2003

On the possibility of Earth-type habitable planets in the 55 Cancri system.

We discuss the possibility of Earth-type planets in the planetary system of 55 Cancri, a nearby G8 V star, which is host to two, possibly three, giant planets. We argue that Earth-type planets around 55 Cancri are in principle possible. Several conditions are necessary. First, Earth-type planets must have formed despite the existence of the close-in giant planet(s). In addition, they must be orbitally stable in the region of habitability considering that the stellar habitable zone is relatively close to the star compared to the Sun because of 55 Cancri's low luminosity and may therefore be affected by the close-in giant planet(s). We estimate the likelihood of Earth-type planets around 55 Cancri based on the integrated system approach previously considered, which provides a way of assessing the long-term possibility of photosynthetic biomass production under geodynamic conditions.

Atmosphere↗
PubMed1994

Provenance of the terrestrial planets.

Earlier work on the simultaneous accumulation of the asteroid belt and the terrestrial planets is extended to investigate the relative contribution to the final planets made by material from different heliocentric distances. As before, stochastic variations intrinsic to the accumulation processes lead to a variety of final planetary configurations, but include systems having a number of features similar to our solar system. Fifty-nine new simulations are presented, from which thirteen are selected as more similar to our solar system than the others. It is found that the concept of "local feeding zones" for each final terrestrial planet has no validity for this model. Instead, the final terrestrial planets receive major contributions from bodies ranging from 0.5 to at least 2.5 AU, and often to greater distances. Nevertheless, there is a correlation between the final heliocentric distance of a planet and its average provenance. Together with the effect of stochastic fluctuations, this permits variation in the composition of the terrestrial planets, such as the difference in the decompressed density of Earth and Mars. Biologically important light elements, derived from the asteroidal region, are likely to have been significant constituents of the Earth during its formation.

Astronomical Phenomena↗
PubMed1992

Impact-generated atmospheres over Titan, Ganymede, and Callisto.

The competition between impact erosion and impact supply of volatiles to planetary atmospheres can determine whether a planet or satellite accumulates an atmosphere. In the absence of other processes (e.g., outgassing), we find either that a planetary atmosphere should be thick, or that there should be no atmosphere at all. The boundary between the two extreme cases is set by the mass and velocity distributions and intrinsic volatile content of the impactors. We apply our model specifically to Titan, Callisto, and Ganymede. The impacting population is identified with comets, either in the form of stray Uranus-Neptune planetesimals or as dislodged Kuiper belt comets. Systematically lower impact velocities on Titan allow it to retain a thick atmosphere, while Callisto and Ganymede get nothing. Titan's atmosphere may therefore be an expression of a late-accreting, volatile-rich veneer. An impact origin for Titan's atmosphere naturally accounts for the high D/H ratio it shares with Earth, the carbonaceous meteorites, and Halley. It also accounts for the general similarity of Titan's atmosphere to those of Triton and Pluto, which is otherwise puzzling in view of the radically different histories and bulk compositions of these objects.

Atmosphere↗
PubMed1993

Cosmogenic and nucleogenic isotopic changes in Mars: their rates and implications to the evolutionary history of Martian surface.

We present calculations of rates of production of several nuclides in the Martian atmosphere and in the regolith due to nuclear interactions of cosmic ray and radiogenic particles and consider their implications to the evolutionary history of Mars. Nuclides selected are those which, considering their chemical properties, may be useful as tracers for delineating the past histories of the Martian atmosphere and regolith. Calculations are presented for different assumed atmospheric pressures. The regolith production rates for the present thin Martian atmosphere (approximately 20 g cm-2) are expected to be fairly robust because they are based primarily on observed cosmogenic effects in the Moon, for which semiempirical estimates of nuclide production rates have been provided earlier by Reedy (1981). Uncertainties which arise in the calculations of nuclide production rates for an earlier hypothetical Martian atmosphere of approximately 300-500 g cm-2 thickness are discussed. Compared to cosmic ray production rates, the nucleogenic production rates are smaller by several orders of magnitude. However, the nucleogenic production extends to much deeper levels, whereas the cosmogenic production is essentially confined to the top 750-1000 g cm-2 depth. Important examples of nucleogenic production are discussed. Isotopes of neon and argon appear to be very promising for delineating relative magnitudes of a number of planetary processes related to the temporal changes in the thickness of the atmosphere, as well as their release from the regolith. However, quantification of the processes would require higher-precision isotopic data for the atmosphere and also direct measurements of isotopic ratios in the Martian regolith, along with supplementary information on changes in the isotopic compositions of hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen, which are affected by a variety of mechanisms of escape of gases from the atmosphere. Cosmogenic effects are minimal in these cases. We show that although we can at present draw but limited inferences, the planet Mars presents a unique opportunity to use cosmogenic nuclides as tools to delineate the evolutionary history of the planet as a whole, as well as its regolith and the atmosphere. This arises because of two factors: minimal degassing of the planet, and a fairly intense chemical weathering history of the upper surface. Consequently, an appreciable fraction of some of the isotopes of volatile elements is contributed by nuclear reactions.

Argon↗
PubMed1964

Exobiology: a critical review.

The quest for life beyond the Earth can be implemented in three ways. First, we may study contemporary terrestrial biology and organic chemistry to approach the problem of the origin of life on Earth. If it appears relatively easy for life to have emerged in the primitive terrestrial environment, it may follow that the origin of life is a fairly general planetary phenomenon. Second, we can investigate the physical environments of the planets, and determine whether the conditions there are so severe that living processes are entirely excluded, even allowing for the adaptability of life. Third, the planets may be studied for direct evidence of indigenous life forms. All three approaches are beset with uncertainties, and it is important to state at the outset that no completely convincing evidence exists for extraterrestrial life. The problem often reduces to probability considerations, and to estimates of observational reliability. At convenient places in the marshalling of evidence, I shall try to pause and give brief expression to alternative interpretations. In almost all cases, an optimistic view can be found which holds that the evidence is strongly suggestive of, or at the worst, not inconsistent with, the existence of extraterrestrial life; and a pessimistic view can be found, which holds that the evidence adduced in favor of extraterrestrial life is unconvincing, irrelevant, or has an alternative, non-biological explanation. I leave it to the reader to pick his own way among the factions.

Atmosphere↗
PubMed2001

Formation of bioorganic compounds in simulated planetary atmospheres by high energy particles or photons.

Various types of organic compounds have been detected in Jupiter, Titan, and cometary coma. It is probable that organic compounds were formed in primitive Earth and Mars atmospheres. Cosmic rays and solar UV are believed to be two major energy sources for organic formation in space. We examined energetics of organic formation in simulated planetary atmospheres. Gas mixtures including a C-source (carbon monoxide or methane) and a N-source (nitrogen or ammonia) was irradiated with the followings: High energy protons or electrons from accelerators, gamma-rays from 60Co, UV light from a deuterium lamp, and soft X-rays or UV light from an electron synchrotron. Amino acids were detected in the products of particles, gamma-rays and soft X-rays irradiation from each gas mixture examined. UV light gave, however, no amino acid precursors in the gas mixture of carbon monoxide, nitrogen and nitrogen. It gave only a trace of them in the gas mixture of carbon monoxide, ammonia and water or that of methane, nitrogen and water. Yield of amino acid precursors by photons greatly depended on their wavelength. These results suggest that nitrogen-containing organic compounds like amino acid precursors were formed chiefly with high energy particles, not UV photons, in Titan or primitive Earth/Mars atmospheres where ammonia is not available as a predominant N-source.

Alanine↗
PubMed1996

A matched filter method for ground-based sub-noise detection of terrestrial extrasolar planets in eclipsing binaries: application to CM Draconis.

The photometric detection of extrasolar planets by transits in eclipsing binary systems can be significantly improved by cross-correlating the observational light curves with synthetic models of possible planetary transit features, essentially a matched filter approach. We demonstrate the utility and application of this transit detection algorithm for ground-based detections of terrestrial-sized (Earth-to-Neptune radii) extrasolar planets in the dwarf M-star eclipsing binary system CM Draconis. Preliminary photometric observational data of this system demonstrate that the observational noise is well characterized as white and Gaussian at the observational time steps required for precision photometric measurements. Depending on planet formation scenarios, terrestrial-sized planets may form quite close to this low-luminosity system. We demonstrate, for example, that planets as small as 1.4 Earth radii with periods on the order of a few months in the CM Draconis system could be detected at the 99.9% confidence level in less than a year using 1-m class telescopes from the ground. This result contradicts commonly held assumptions limiting present ground-based efforts to, at best, detections of gas giant planets after several years of observation. This method can be readily extended to a number of other larger star systems with the utilization of larger telescopes and longer observing times. Its extension to spacecraft observations should also allow the determination of the presence of terrestrial-sized planets in nearly 100 other known eclipsing binary systems.

Algorithms↗
PubMed1997

The Cretaceous-Tertiary impact crater and the cosmic projectile that produced it.

Evidence gathered to date from topographic data, geophysical data, well logs, and drill-core samples indicates that the buried Chicxulub basin, the source crater for the approximately 65 Ma Cretaceous-Tertiary (K/T) boundary deposits, is approximately 300 km in diameter. A prominent topographic ridge and a ring of gravity anomalies mark the position of the basin rim at approximately 150 km from the center. Wells in this region recovered thick sequences of impact-generated breccias at 200-300 m below present sea level. Inside the rim, which has been severely modified by erosion following impact, the subsurface basin continues to deepen until near the center it is approximately 1 km deep. The best planetary analog for this crater appears to be the 270 km-diameter Mead basin on Venus. Seismic reflection data indicate that the central zone of downward displacement and excavation (the transient crater is approximately 130 km in diameter, consistent with previous studies of gravity anomaly data). Our analysis of projectile characteristics utilizes this information, coupled with conventional scaling relationships, and geochemical constraints on the mass of extraterrestrial material deposited within the K/T boundary layer. Results indicate that the Chicxulub crater would most likely be formed by a long-period comet composed primarily of nonsilicate materials (ice, hydrocarbons, etc.) and subordinate amounts (< or = 50%) primitive chondritic material. This collision would have released the energy equivalent to between 4 x 10(8) and 4 x 10(9) megatons of TNT. Studies of terrestrial impact rates suggest that such an event would have a mean production rate of approximately 1.25 x 10(-9) y-1. This rate is considerably lower than that of the major mass extinctions over the last 250 million years (approximately 5 x 10(-7) y-1). Consequently, while there is substantial circumstantial evidence establishing the cause-effect link between the Chicxulub basin forming event and the K/T biological extinctions, the results of our analysis do not support models of impact as a common or singular causative agent of mass extinctions on Earth.

Biological Evolution↗
PubMed1993

Formation of planetary embryos: effects of fragmentation, low relative velocity, and independent variation of eccentricity and inclination.

An earlier investigation of the formation of approximately 10(26) g planetary embryos from much smaller planetesimals (G.W. Wetherill and G.R. Stewart 1989, Icarus 77, 350-357) has been extended to include the effects of collisional fragmentation, the low relative velocity regime in which the effects due to solar gravity are important, and independent perturbations of eccentricity and inclination. In agreement with this earlier work, it if found that at 1 AU runaway growth occurs on a approximately 10(-5)-year time scale as a consequence of equipartition of energy between large and small planetesimals. It is now seen that the runaway is initiated after approximately 10(4) years, when the relative velocities of the larger bodies temporarily fall into the low-velocity regime, lowering their inclinations and increasing their gravitational capture rates. After approximately 2 X 10(4) years, relative velocities between most bodies emerge from the low-velocity regime, and these higher velocities tend to inhibit further runaway growth. This rapid runaway growth is self-regulated, however, by these same higher velocities, causing fragmentation of the smaller bodies. The velocities of the collision fragments are reduced by gas drag, facilitating their capture by the growing runaway embryos. Variations in which different fragmentation models are used, or long-range forces between nonrunaway bodies are absent, give similar results. When fragmentation is not included, the time scale for growth increases to approximately 3 X 10(5) years as a result of loss of the self-regulating process described above.

Astronomical Phenomena↗