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PubMed1979

Activity of citrinin metabolized by rat and human microsome fractions in clastogenicity and SCE assays on Chinese hamster V79-E cells.

The mycotoxin citrinin is a potent inducer of chromosomal aberrations in the clastogenicity assay on V79-E cells when metabolized by rat and human liver microsomes. Rat and human liver microsomes, standardized on protein content, activate citrinin at equal levels. 5 X 10(-4) M citrinin induces complex translocations in a high frequency as well as defects of chromosomal coiling. Higher concentrations are cytotoxic, lower ones are almost inactive. After metabolization of mycotoxin by rat-kidney microsomes or an S9 mix fraction containing rat liver and kidney microsomes, toxic effects predominate and chromosomal aberrations are diminished. Clastogenic citrinin concentrations do not induce an increase of SCE frequency. Although the mode of action of this mycotoxin on chromosomal structure remains obscure, possible explanations are discussed.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Characterization of monascidin A from Monascus as citrinin.

Following our investigations on red pigments and monascidin co-production by Monascus species, the antibiotic called monascidin A was characterized as citrinin. Evidence was given by qualitative methods, mass spectra and NMR. Citrinin, a nephrotoxic agent was produced both by Monascus purpureus and Monascus ruber, either in submerged culture of concentrations of 270 and 340 mg/l, respectively, or in solid state culture of concentration of 100 and 300 mg/kg dried matter, respectively. Since citrinin is a toxic product, it is essential that the production of red pigments as food additives from Monascus spp. avoid the occurrence of citrinin.

Bacteria↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Inhibition of RNA- and DNA-synthesis by citrinin and its effects on DNA precursor-metabolism in V79-E cells.

1. The RNA synthesis of V79-E cells was inhibited by the mycotoxin citrinin time- and concentration-dependently. 2. Among the different RNA species mainly the rRNA synthesis was found to be inhibited by 200 microM citrinin. 3. At different precursor concentrations DNA synthesis was inhibited by citrinin after 30 min at least whereas labelling of the acid soluble fractions was found to be 3-fold higher than in untreated cells. 4. Remarkable perturbation of the DNA precursor metabolism, including release of precursor into the medium, was found to occur during citrinin treatment.

Animals↗
PubMed1987

The effect of chromate on citrinin-induced renal dysfunction in the rat.

Previous studies in this laboratory revealed an effect of chromate to potentiate the nephrotoxic effects of mercuric ion. Citrinin, an organic anion, is a known nephrotoxin. The present study was undertaken to assess the possible interaction of chromate and citrinin on renal function. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were housed in metabolism cages and injected with citrinin (35 mg/kg), chromate (10 mg/kg) or the combination. The combination of nephrotoxicants caused an increased excretion of urine greater than the sum of the individual responses. A similar response was observed with urinary glucose concentrations and glucose excretion without changes in blood glucose levels. These data indicate that chromate can potentiate the nephrotoxic action of citrinin in the rat.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Influence of water activity on Penicillium citrinum growth and kinetics of citrinin accumulation in wheat.

The influence of water activity (aw) on both Penicillium citrinum growth and citrinin accumulation in wheat was studied. Wheat conditioned at different levels of aw and inoculated with a citrinin producer strain was incubated at 30 degrees C for 2 months. Fungal growth was assessed by microscopic examination. P. citrinum grew down to aw 0.775. Citrinin was not detected in the substrate at aw 0.800 and lower. As aw increased the toxin was detected earlier and the maximum accumulation increased markedly (65 microg/kg at aw 0.810, 460 microg/kg at aw 0.825 and 22 mg/kg at aw 0.885). Citrinin concentration declines rapidly after reaching the maximum at each aw level.

Chromatography, Gel↗
PubMed2002

The effect of culture preservation techniques on patulin and citrinin production by Penicillium expansum Link.

AIMS: To study the influence of culture preservation methods and culture conditions on the production of the mycotoxins patulin and citrinin by Penicillium expansum. METHODS AND RESULTS: Ten strains of Penicillium expansum were preserved using subculture and maintenance at 4 degrees C, mineral oil, drying on silica gel and freeze-drying. Patulin and citrinin production was assessed on yeast extract sucrose agar (YES) and grape juice agar (GJ), using TLC before and after 0.5, 2-3, 6 and 12 months preservation. Citrinin was detected in all cultures for all preservation techniques on YES. The patulin profiles obtained differed with strain and culture media used. CONCLUSIONS: Citrinin production seems to be a stable character for the tested strains. There is a tendency for patulin detection with time apparently more consistent for silica gel storage and freeze-drying, especially when the strains are grown on GJ. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Variability in the profiles of the mycotoxins tested seems to be more strain-specific than dependent on the preservation technique used.

Bacteriological Techniques↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Effects of the mycotoxins citrinin and ochratoxin a on hepatic mixed-function oxidase and adenosinetriphosphatase in neonatal rats.

The effects of citrinin, ochratoxin A, or a combination of the two mycotoxins on the hepatic monooxygenase system and on hepatic and renal adenosinetriphosphatase (ATPase) activities were examined in neonatal rats exposed to a single treatment of one or both toxins. Animals received (po) 25 mg/kg citrinin, 1 mg/kg ochratoxin A, or 25 mg/kg citrinin plus 1 mg/kg ochratoxin A within 24 h of birth. Pups were killed 12 d later. Citrinin or ochratoxin A alone did not affect hepatic ATPase. Renal oligomycin-sensitive Mg2+-ATPase was inhibited to the same degree by ochratoxin A and the combination treatment. A synergistic effect of the two mycotoxins was observed on renal Na+-K+-ATPase. Significant effects, due to the mycotoxin interaction, were also observed on cytochrome P-450 content, NADPH-dependent dehydrogenase, and NADPH-cytochrome c reductase.

Adenosine Triphosphatases↗
PubMed1978

Production and analysis of citrinin in corn.

A convenient method for the production and analysis of citrinin in corn is described. Up to 2.964 g of citrinin can be produced by Penicillium citrinum per kg of corn by harvesting on day 21 or later. The analysis method has a lower detection limit of 0.25 ppm. Heating citrinin-contaminated corn destroys citrinin but may produce another toxin instead.

Animals↗
PubMed1983

Toxic effects of ochratoxin A and citrinin, alone and in combination, on chicken embryos.

The embryotoxic potential of ochratoxin A and citrinin was studied after administering, either subgerminally or intraamniotically, single mounting doses of the mycotoxins to chicken embryos on days 2, 3, and 4. The beginning of the embryotoxicity dose range was found to be between 0.01 to 0.05 microgram for ochratoxin A and 1 to 10 micrograms for citrinin. The maximum response to both mycotoxins occurred after administration on day 3. In addition to significant growth retardation of fetuses, exencephaly, microphthalmia, cleft beak, reduction deformities of the limbs, and abdominal wall and ventricular septal defects were encountered on day 8 of incubation. When 4 micrograms of citrinin was constantly added to ochratoxin A administered in the dose range of 0.03 to 0.5 microgram, a strictly additive effect was seen. It may be supposed that citrinin produced together with ochratoxin A in some strains of Penicillium viridicatum Westling does not potentiate the clear-cut embryotoxic action of the latter mycotoxin.

Abnormalities, Drug-Induced↗
PubMed1986

Action of citrinin on bacterial chromosomal and plasmid DNA in vivo and in vitro.

Citrinin, a mycotoxin of Penicillium citrinum and other species of the genera Penicillium and Aspergillus, caused the following effects at different concentrations in Escherichia coli. In vivo at 100 micrograms/ml single-strand breaks were caused in the chromosomal DNA. In the presence of 100 micrograms/ml, UV (254 nm)-induced DNA damage was repaired in the bacterial cells without need for a complete growth medium. At 300 micrograms/ml lambda ts prophage was induced in a lysogenic E. coli strain. In an E. coli strain carrying a F' lac plasmid, 4.7% of the cells displayed the Lac- phenotype after treatment with 200 micrograms of citrinin per ml, suggesting elimination of the F' factor. In vitro, DNA repair synthesis was observed at 5 micrograms of citrinin per ml in permeabilized cells, and replicative DNA synthesis was inhibited at 200 micrograms/ml. In these systems synthesis of stable RNAs was slightly diminished at 300 micrograms/ml, and protein synthesis was not affected at concentrations up to 450 micrograms/ml. Lambda and ColE1 plasmid DNA were cleaved in vitro when small amounts of copper ions were present. This DNA-attacking activity was prevented by NADPH, catalase, and superoxide dismutase and by higher concentrations of hydroxyl radical scavengers, suggesting the involvement of free radicals in the mechanism of action of citrinin on DNA.

Bacteriocin Plasmids↗
PubMed2000

Medium-chain fatty acids affect citrinin production in the filamentous fungus Monascus ruber.

During submerged culture in the presence of glucose and glutamate, the filamentous fungus Monascus ruber produces water-soluble red pigments together with citrinin, a mycotoxin with nephrotoxic and hepatoxic effects on animals. Analysis of the (13)C-pigment molecules from mycelia cultivated with [1-(13)C]-, [2-(13)C]-, or [1, 2-(13)C]acetate by (13)C nuclear magnetic resonance indicated that the biosynthesis of the red pigments used both the polyketide pathway, to generate the chromophore structure, and the fatty acid synthesis pathway, to produce a medium-chain fatty acid (octanoic acid) which was then bound to the chromophore by a trans-esterification reaction. Hence, to enhance pigment production, we tried to short-circuit the de novo synthesis of medium-chain fatty acids by adding them to the culture broth. Of fatty acids with carbon chains ranging from 6 to 18 carbon atoms, only octanoic acid showed a 30 to 50% stimulation of red pigment production, by a mechanism which, in contrast to expectation, did not involve its direct trans-esterification on the chromophore backbone. However, the medium- and long-chain fatty acids tested were readily assimilated by the fungus, and in the case of fatty acids ranging from 8 to 12 carbon atoms, 30 to 40% of their initial amount transiently accumulated in the growth medium in the form of the corresponding methylketone 1 carbon unit shorter. Very interestingly, these fatty acids or their corresponding methylketones caused a strong reduction in, or even a complete inhibition of, citrinin production by M. ruber when they were added to the medium. Several data indicated that this effect could be due to the degradation of the newly synthesized citrinin (or an intermediate in the citrinin pathway) by hydrogen peroxide resulting from peroxisome proliferation induced by medium-chain fatty acids or methylketones.

Acetates↗
PubMed1977

Ochratoxin A and citrinin induced nephrosis in Beagle dogs. II. Pathology.

Beagle dogs were given ochratoxin A (0.1 and 0.2 mg/kg) and citrinin (5 and 10 mg/kg) alone and in two dose combinations for 14 days. The gross lesions included focal peritonitis and intestinal intussusceptions in dogs given citrinin. Changes in the kidneys of dogs given ochratoxin A were degeneration and necrosis with desquamation of tubular epithelial cells, primarily in the straight segment of the proximal tubules. Dogs given 10 mg/kg citrin had similar changes in the distal tubules and collecting ducts. Dogs given combined doses of citrinin and ochratoxin A had degeneration and necrosis in proximal and distal tubules, and in thin segments and the collecting ducts; there were desquamated cells and granular casts in the lumina. Dogs given ochratoxin A had necrosis of lymphoid tissues in the spleen, tonsil, thymus, peripheral lymph nodes and lymph nodules of the ileum, colon and rectum. There was ulceration of the mucosa of the intestine in dogs given large combined doses of ochratoxin A and citrinin.

Animals↗
PubMed1984

Studies on the sequential development and pathogenesis of citrinin mycotoxicosis in turkeys and ducklings.

The toxic effects of citrinin in turkeys and ducklings was studied in four trials. Citrinin dissolved in dimethyl sulfoxide-70% ethanol solution (3:1, volume/volume) was administered by gavage to male turkey poults and male white Pekin ducklings. When seven-day-old ducklings were given doses of citrinin between 30 to 110 mg/kg body weight, most of the treated ducklings which died (49/80) did so within four to 12 hours. Blood samples were collected sequentially at 3, 6, 12, and 24 hours after administration from seven-day-old ducklings given the single lethal dose (LD50). The alterations included hyperkalemia (P less than or equal to 0.01) and metabolic acidosis characterized by reduced blood pH (P less than or equal to 0.01) and base excess (P less than or equal to 0.01). Fourteen-day-old turkeys and ducklings given 56 or 57 mg/kg, respectively, were killed at 1, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, and 72 hours after treatment. The principal alteration in both species was nephrosis that was more severe in turkeys than in ducklings. Tubular necrosis was the dominant lesion at three to 72 hours in turkeys and at six to 24 hours in ducklings. Hepatic and lymphoid lesions occurred in both turkeys and ducklings treated with citrinin.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Simple and sensitive determination of citrinin in Monascus by GC-selected ion monitoring mass spectrometry.

A new method for the qualitative and quantitative analysis of citrinin in Monascus by gas-chromatography-selected ion monitoring (SIM) mass spectrometry has been developed. GC separation of citrinin in Monascus extract was achieved without the need for chemical derivatization, and could be detected as a single peak when the SIM mode selected 5 prominent fragmentations (m/z of 220, 205, 177, 105 and 91). The quantitative detection limit for citrinin was approximately 1 ppb. Finally, the GC-separated analyte from Monascus extract, at a retention time of 10.89 min, was examined by the method of pattern recognition by comparison with a citrinin standard. The results show that the 2 compounds had a 94% similarity when the SIM mode was used.

Ascomycota↗
PubMed1992

Studies on aldose reductase inhibitors from fungi. I. Citrinin and related benzopyran derivatives.

The fungal metabolites, citrinin (4,6-dihydro-8-hydroxy-3,4,5-trimethyl-6- oxo-3H-2-benzopyran-7-carboxylic acid) and DHMI (3,4-dihydro-6-methoxy-3,7-dimethyl-1H-2-benzopyran-8-ol), as well as certain synthetic derivatives, have been evaluated for aldose reductase inhibitory activity using a rat lens enzyme preparation. Citrinin and its reduction product, dihydrocitrinin, were found to have significant activity (IC50 approximately 10 microM), whereas the other compounds were 3-10 times less potent. Kinetic studies showed that citrinin was not an irreversible inhibitor of the enzyme, as might be expected of a quinone methide. Spectroscopic (NMR) evidence is presented for the existence of citrinin predominantly in the form of its hemi-acetal in aqueous solutions, suggesting that it is this benzo[c]pyran derivative which interacts with the enzyme, rather than the quinone methide form.

Aldehyde Reductase↗
PubMed1976

Screening method for the detection of aflatoxin, ochratoxin, zearalenone, penicillic acid, and citrinin.

A modification of the official method for ochratoxins and a screening method for zearalenone, aflatoxin, and ochratoxin is described and expanded to include citrinin and penicillic acid. The method uses 0.5N phosphoric acidchloroform (1+10) in the initial extraction; the extract is divided and eluted from 2 columns to provide a quantitative thin layer chromatographic (TLC) method for aflatoxin and ochratoxin in corn and dried beans. Aflatoxin and zearalenone are eluted from one column and ochratoxin, penicillic acid, and citrinin from the other. Ochratoxin A recoveries are low (50%) in peanuts. Zearalenone, penicillic acid, and citrinin were qualitatively recovered from corn and beans; zearalenone and penicillic acid were recovered from peanuts but citrinin was not. Several TLC solvents were used to separate interferences.

Aflatoxins↗
PubMed1986

Induction of DNA single-strand breaks and DNA synthesis inhibition by patulin, ochratoxin A, citrinin, and aflatoxin B1 in cell lines CHO and AWRF.

Four mycotoxins, patulin, ochratoxin A, citrinin, and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), were compared for their cytotoxicity, DNA synthesis inhibition and DNA damage in CHO and AWRF cells. The concentrations causing a 50% inhibition of colony formation in CHO cells were 0.07, 33, 31, and 10 micrograms/ml, respectively, for patulin, ochratoxin A, citrinin, and AFB1. Values obtained for AWRF cells were 0.011, 6.4, 6.7, and 0.15 micrograms/ml, respectively. Patulin strongly inhibited DNA synthesis in both CHO and AWRF cells, at concentrations over 4 micrograms/ml. Ochratoxin A and citrinin elicited mild inhibition of DNA synthesis (up to 20%) at concentrations greater than 50 micrograms/ml. AFB1 at concentrations over 5 micrograms/ml strongly inhibited DNA synthesis in AWRF cells but stimulated DNA synthesis in CHO cells. In accordance with these findings, AFB1 induced single-strand breaks in the DNA of AWRF cells only. Patulin induced about the same levels of DNA breaks in both types of cells, at concentrations greater than 2 micrograms/ml. Citrinin and ochratoxin A produced DNA breaks in CHO cells, at a very high concentration of 200 micrograms/ml. The number of breaks induced in AWRF cells was not statistically significant. The results suggest that the different effects of AFB1 on CHO and AWRF cells are due to the different ability of these cells to metabolize AFB1 to the ultimate carcinogen AFB1-8,9-oxide by microsomal cytochrome P-450-dependent oxygenases. The effects of the other mycotoxins not requiring the metabolic activation were comparable for both cell types.

Aflatoxin B1↗
PubMed1979

Thin layer chromatographic determination of citrinin.

A thin layer chromatographic (TLC) method is described for the determination of citrinin in feeds. Citrinin is extracted from feed with methanol and water, the mixture is made alkaline with 10% sodium carbonate, and the aqueous solution is filtered and extracted with chloroform to remove most of the interfering materials. The aqueous layer is acidified with 2N HCl and extracted with chloroform. The chloroform extract is concentrated and spotted on a thin layer chromatographic (TLC) plate which is developed in chloroform-acetone-ethanol-water (60 + 40 + 10 + 1). The citrinin is viewed under ultraviolet light after TLC. Either visual or fluorodensitometric quantitation is used. Recoveries of citrinin from various feed samples spiked at levels of 2.0--5 micrograms/g were 75--92%. The proposed method can detect 0.5 micrograms/g feed, including corn, silage, ready mixed feeds, and feed pellets.

Animal Feed↗