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PubMed1995

Child labor.

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Adolescent↗
PubMed1986

Child labor.

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PubMed1991

Child labor in suburban areas of Calcutta, West Bengal.

Seven hundred and fifty nine children in different sectors were covered in this study, which was undertaken by observational techniques, questionnaires and physical examination. All children belonged to the age group of 6-14 years. Nearly 30% children had migrated from neighbouring districts and states. Almost 88% were Hindus and 12.2% were Muslims. Seventy one per cent children came from large families. In 40% families one child, and in 59.6% families more than one sibling had joined the labor force. About 83% fathers and 93.9% mothers were illiterate. A total of 55.8% did not attend schools; 45.3% had discontinued school due to poverty (69.9%), father's apathy (8.4%), children's own attitude (10.4%) and frequent absence and physical assaults by school teachers (5.0%). The main reason for taking up jobs was low per capita income (70.3%). Wages were exploitatively low: as little as Rs. 50/- per month in 20.8%, for work of an average 10-12 hours per day. Only 4% had systemic health check-ups. Different grades of malnutrition were observed in 55.7% male and 29.5% female working children. The ailments observed included anemia (60.4%), respiratory tract infection (31.8%), and gastrointestinal tract infection (33.6%). Nearly half (52.6%) children were addicted to bidi smoking, 3% to ganja and 39.3% to betel-nut. The evils of exploitation are increasing inspite of existing child laws.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Evolutionary demography and intrahousehold time allocation: school attendance and child labor among the Okavango Delta Peoples of Botswana.

The ways in which resources are allocated within households and/or families, especially within the context of children's time allocation to labor and schooling, has long been a subject of concern to demographers and economists. Differential investment in children and resulting differences in activity budgets may have significant effects on children's growth and development as well as on aspects of reproduction. This study uses predictions regarding parental investment in the embodied capital of offspring generated by evolutionary theory to examine the pattern of children's time allocation to labor and schooling among the Okavango Delta Peoples of Botswana. Models incorporating individual costs and benefits of resource allocation, conflicts of interests between men and women and between parents and offspring, and the effects of family composition, subsistence ecology, and gender are developed and applied to data on time allocation, household demography, and household economy. Several findings emerged: (1) The availability of alternative productive tasks strongly affects intra- and intergenerational labor substitution. (2) The presence of similarly aged children of the same sex within the household decreases the likelihood of both boys and girls engaging in a specific productive activity and increases the likelihood of children's school attendance. (3) Birth order, the labor needs of the household, and parents' marital status all affect school attendance. These results have implications for understanding the determinants of children's time allocation to labor and schooling and consequent impacts on development, health, and welfare.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Child labor in Ghana cocoa production: focus upon agricultural tasks, ergonomic exposures, and associated injuries and illnesses.

OBJECTIVES: The goal of this study was to determine the occupational hazards experienced by children harvesting cocoa in western Ghana in order to design a vocational literacy life skills curriculum and radio social messaging campaign with a safety component to decrease hazardous work exposures in child agricultural work. METHODS: An observational analysis was conducted of children aged 9 through 17 based upon personal interviews of agricultural workers, focus groups, and direct observation of work practices and activities. Job site analysis incorporated task mapping, job hazard review, and a review of equipment and use of protective gear. RESULTS: Children and young people aged 9 through 17 are exposed to hazardous occupational exposures including strenuous work, sharp tools, and pesticides. Lack of training in proper safety practices and inadequate personal protective equipment were commonly noted. Injuries and illnesses included musculoskeletal disorders, sprains, strains, lacerations to the head, fractures, eye injuries, rashes, and coughing. CONCLUSION: Children working in cocoa harvesting are exposed to physical and chemical hazards without proper training or personal protective equipment. Unless safety interventions occur, there are potential long-term adverse health consequences.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Child labor and musculoskeletal disorders: the Pelotas (Brazil) epidemiological survey.

OBJECTIVES: [corrected] This article describes the prevalence of musculoskeletal pain in several anatomic sites in children and teens, and investigates, while adjusting for potential confounders, the association between musculoskeletal pain and back pain and the following: age, gender, sports practice, use of computer/video games/television, school attendance, intensity of involvement in household domestic activities, care of other children, care of sick/elderly family members, work activities, and workloads. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional study interviewing 3,269 children aged 10-17 years in the low-income areas of Pelotas, Brazil. RESULTS: The prevalence of pain in the neck, knee, wrist or hands, and upper back exceeded 15%. Workers in manufacturing had a significantly increased risk for musculoskeletal pain (prevalence ratio [PR]=1.31) and for back pain (PR=1.69), while workers in domestic service had 17% more musculoskeletal pain and 23% more back pain than nonworkers. Awkward posture (PR=1.15) and heavy physical work (PR=1.07) were associated with musculoskeletal pain, while monotonous work (PR=1.34), awkward posture (PR=1.31), and noise (PR=1.25) were associated with back pain. CONCLUSIONS: Musculoskeletal pain is common among working children and teens. Knowledge of occupational risk factors can support actions to restructure work conditions to reduce or eliminate childhood exposure to hazardous conditions. Our results suggest that strategies to prevent musculoskeletal disorders in child workers should be developed.

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PubMed1992

Making human junk: child labor as a health issue in the Progressive Era.

The adverse health effects of work on approximately 2 million employed children troubled many in the United States during the early 20th century. Advocates of reform initially built a rationale for protective legislation primarily from informal, lay observations of the broad developmental outcomes of premature employment. In this endeavor, they projected a dismal scenario of impending national deterioration. This argument received strong criticism for the inadequacy of its corroborating evidence. In response, Progressive reformers emphasized the specific, measurable consequences of particular occupations. Increasingly, liberal advocates of the exclusion of boys and girls from the work force drew upon statistical compilations of occupational injuries and illnesses diagnosed by physicians. Despite their turn toward scientism, Progressives remained somewhat ambivalent about the sufficiency of quantitative data alone to achieve their aims.

Adolescent↗