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PubMed1994

Body fat distribution and perception of desirable female body shape by young black men and women.

The relation between body fat distribution as measured by waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) and perception of desirable female body shape was investigated in college-age black men and women. Subjects judged attractiveness, various personal qualities, and desirability for long-term relationships of 12 line drawings of female figures that represented three body weight categories (normal, underweight, and overweight) and four levels of WHRs (0.7, 0.8, 0.9, and 1.0). Judgments of attractiveness and desirability for long-term relationships were affected by body weight and the size of the WHR. Both male and female subjects ranked normal weight figures with 0.7 and 0.8 WHR as more attractive and desirable for long-term relationships; neither underweight nor overweight figures, irrespective of WHR size, were assigned high ranking for these variables. These findings do not support the notion that black young men and women find overweight female figures as desirable and attractive.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1990

The association of body fat distribution with lifestyle and reproductive factors in a population study of postmenopausal women.

We examined the cross-sectional association of fat distribution with a number of lifestyle and reproductive factors in a random sample of 40,980 postmenopausal women, aged 55 to 69 years. The relationship of weight history with current fat distribution was also explored. Body fat distribution, defined by the ratio of waist-to-hip circumferences (WHR), was most strongly related to body mass index (BMI). WHR was also significantly and negatively associated with physical activity, alcohol consumption, and education, and was significantly positively associated with age, cigarette smoking, and a number of reproductive factors, such as history of infertility, number of live births, age at first live birth, and replacement estrogen use. WHR was not related to past BMIs, after adjusting for current body mass. The best-fit final regression model included (beta +/- s.e.) age (0.003 +/- 0.0001), BMI (0.02 +/- 0.0005), a curvilinear term for BMI (-0.0002 +/- 0.00001), greater than high school education (-0.007 +/- 0.001), cigarette smoking (0.02 +/- 0.001), alcohol drinker (-0.005 +/- 0.001), and number of live births (0.001 +/- 0.0002). The model R2 was 0.21. BMI (R2 = 0.18) and age (R2 = 0.02) accounted for most of the variation in WHR. The association of these lifestyle and reproductive factors with WHR suggests that the deposition of fat in the abdominal versus the gluteal region may be influenced somewhat by factors other than overall adiposity and genetics.

Abdomen↗
PubMed2001

Sex differences of body fat distribution and cardiovascular dysmetabolic factors in old age.

BACKGROUND: The relationship between sexual differences of body fat distribution and cardiovascular dysmetabolic factors in old people is controversial. OBJECTIVES: To use centrality index-derived body fat distribution to clarify its relationship with glucose tolerance status, blood pressure and lipid profile. DESIGN: Cross-sectional survey in a tertiary-care medical centre in Tainan, Taiwan. SUBJECTS: 114 men and 101 women, aged > or = 60 years. METHODS: We measured total % body fat and body fat distribution (reflected as centrality index) by dual energy x-ray absorptiometry, and plasma glucose, glycosylated haemoglobin, blood pressure, total cholesterol, triglyceride, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol and atherogenic index (total cholesterol/HDL cholesterol). RESULTS: Centrality index showed better linear correlation with cardiovascular dysmetabolic factors than body mass index, total % body fat and waist-to-hip ratio, except in systolic blood pressure. Women had higher total % body fat, but the % abdominal fat and centrality index were both higher in men. Subjects with diabetes mellitus had the highest centrality index compared with those with impaired or normal glucose tolerance. After adjustment for age and total % body fat, men still had higher diastolic blood pressure, triglyceride levels and atherogenic indices, but lower HDL cholesterol levels than women. However, when further adjusted for centrality index, the sex differences in cardiovascular dysmetabolic factors were statistically insignificant. CONCLUSIONS: Centrality index is a useful method for assessing body fat distribution in older people. Body fat distribution is an important factor in sex differences of cardiovascular dysmetabolic factors in old people.

Aged↗
PubMed1990

Body fat distribution in men with angiographically confirmed coronary artery disease.

Body fat distribution and its relationship to coronary artery disease and established cardiovascular risk factors have been studied in a cohort of 286 men aged between 30 and 74 years undergoing coronary angiography. 207 (72.4%) patients showed stenosis (greater than 30%) or occlusion of one or more coronary arteries. whereas the remaining 79 (27.6%) men were free of coronary lesions and served as a control group. 112 men with angiographically defined coronary artery disease had an additional history of myocardial infarction. Body fat distribution was assessed by determining the waist-to-hip circumference ratio. A stepwise logistic regression analysis revealed that in addition to LDL-cholesterol (P = 0.0001) and age (P = 0.0005) an abdominal type of body fat distribution (P = 0.0129) is also a significant risk indicator for the occurrence of coronary artery disease (CAD) independent of body weight and other factors such as total cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol, triglycerides, insulin, systolic and diastolic blood pressure. The results of this study suggest that an abdominal type of fat distribution is associated with an increased risk of coronary artery disease.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed2003

Relationships of resting energy expenditure with body fat distribution and abdominal fatness in Japanese population.

Body fat distribution and abdominal fatness are indicators of risks for coronary heart disease. However, the relationships between resting energy expenditure (REE) and the body fat distribution or the abdominal fatness are unclear. We examined the relationships of REE with whole-body fat distribution (waist, hip and waist-to-hip ratio: WHR) and abdominal fatness (intra-abdominal fat: IF and subcutaneous fat: SF) after adjustment for body composition. 451 men and 471 women were subdivided into two groups, 40-59 years: middle-aged group and 60-79 years: elderly group. REE was measured by an indirect calorimetry system. Percentage of fat mass (%FM), fat mass (FM) and fat-free mass (FFM) were assessed by a dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry method. The IF area (IFA) and SF area (SFA) at the level of the umbilicus were measured using computed tomography. Circumference of waist and hip were measured in a standing position. The WHR, waist circumference and SFA did not significantly (p>0.05) associate with the REE after adjusting for FM, FFM and age in any of the groups. The adjusted REE was significantly and inversely correlated with hip (r=-0.159, p<0.05) and IFA (r=-0.131, p<0.05) in the elderly men. These results suggest that lower REE may contribute to greater hip and IFA rather than WHR and waist in elderly men.

Abdomen↗
PubMed1995

Body fat distribution, rather than overall adiposity, influences serum lipids and lipoproteins in healthy men independently of age.

PURPOSE: We investigated the relationships between the amount and distribution of body fat and fasting serum lipids and lipoproteins to explore whether coronary artery disease (CAD) risk may be mediated through effects on the serum lipid profile. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We determined serum total cholesterol and triglyceride, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, and HDL subfractions 2 and 3 in 103 healthy men, aged 21 to 77 years (mean 48.7). The amount and distribution of fat were determined directly by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry. Adiposity was determined as the ratio between total body fat tissue and total body lean tissue, while fat distribution was taken as the ratio between the mass of fat tissue in the android (central) and gynoid (hip and thigh) regions. RESULTS: Univariate analysis showed both adiposity and fat distribution to be correlated with total serum cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations (adiposity r = .20, .21; both P < 0.05: fat distribution r = .25, .38; P < 0.05, P < 0.001, respectively). Fat distribution was also negatively correlated with HDL2 cholesterol (r = -.20, P < 0.05). In multiple linear regression analysis, neither age nor adiposity was significantly correlated with any serum lipid or lipoprotein concentration, while increasing android-to-gynoid ratio was independently associated with elevated total serum triglyceride (r = .40, P < 0.01) and decreased HDL2 (r = -.25, P < 0.05) concentrations. CONCLUSIONS: The association of both age and overall adiposity with the fasting serum lipid profile are mediated via their correlations with body fat distribution. In men, the distribution, rather than the amount, of body fat is related to adverse changes in serum lipids and lipoproteins, and hence potentially to increased CAD risk.

Absorptiometry, Photon↗
PubMed1994

Coagulation, fibrinolysis and haemorheology in premenopausal obese women with different body fat distribution.

Recently waist/hip ratio (WHR), a marker of body fat distribution, has been described as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD). The aim of the present study was to evaluate the influence of body fat distribution on metabolic, haemostatic and haemorheological pattern in premenopausal obese women with different WHR. Fourty premenopausal obese women were subdivided into two groups, matched for age and body mass index (BMI): 20 women with abdominal obesity (WHR = 0.94 +/- 0.02) and 20 women with peripheral obesity (WHR = 0.77 +/- 0.03). Twenty nonobese women were recruited as control group. The abdominal obesity group had significantly higher blood glucose, triglycerides, total cholesterol, Apolipoprotein B and plasma insulin levels and lower high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol and Apolipoprotein A1 levels than the control group. All the haemostatic (figrinogen, Factor VII, plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI) activity and tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) antigen (Ag) pre venous occlusion (VO)) and haemorheological parameters (haematocrit, whole blood filterability, blood and plasma viscosity) were significantly higher in the abdominal obesity group as compared to the control group. In contrast, mean values of t-PA (Ag) post VO were significantly lower in abdominal obese women. Moreover positive correlations between WHR and plasma insulin (r = 0.68, p < 0.05), between WHR and fibrinogen (r = 0.63, p < 0.05) and between WHR and PAI pre VO (r = 0.71, p < 0.05) and a negative correlation between WHR and t-PA (Ag) post VO (r = -0.55, p < 0.05) were found.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Adult↗
PubMed1988

[Relation between body fat distribution, insulin levels and glucose tolerance in obese females].

Relationship between body fat distribution, serum insulin, and glucose tolerance in obese, non-diabetic women. Recent studies suggest that hyperinsulinemia and upper body obesity are predictive factors for the development of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. To further characterize the relationship between body fat distribution, serum insulin, and glucose tolerance an oral glucose tolerance test was performed in 48 obese, non-diabetic women. Fasting insulin levels were correlated to both total body fat calculated as body mass index (r = 0.58, p less than 0.001) and upper body fat distribution expressed as waist-to-hip ratio (WHR, r = 0.47, p less than 0.01). In the women with upper body fat localization (WHR greater than 0.90) significantly higher basal and glucose-stimulated insulin concentrations were established than in the women with a lower body type of obesity (WHR less than 0.78) (basal insulin 27.4 +/- 11.5 vs. 15.4 +/- 8.8 mU/l, p less than 0.05, insulin area 779 +/- 320 vs. 468 +/- 237 U, p less than 0.05). They also had impaired glucose tolerance (glucose area 925 +/- 139 vs. 633 +/- 147 U, p less than 0.01). Fasting triglyceride concentrations were correlated both with WHR (r = 0.63, p less than 0.001) and fasting insulin (r = 0.33, p less than 0.05) but not with BMI (r = -0.02, n.s.). A positive association was found between systolic and diastolic blood pressure and both WHR (r = 0.43 and r = 0.44 resp., p less than 0.01) and BMI (each r = 0.35, p less than 0.05). Interestingly, basal insulin was also associated with blood pressure (r = 0.30, p less than 0.1, and r = 0.40, p less than 0.01 resp.).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1990

Body fat distribution and male/female differences in lipids and lipoproteins.

The role of body fat distribution, as assessed by the ratio of waist-to-hip circumferences (WHR), in statistically explaining differences in levels of lipoproteins between men and women was studied using data collected in 1985-1986 from employed adults (mean age, 40 years). As compared with the 415 women, the 709 men had higher mean levels of triglycerides (+38 mg/dl) and apolipoprotein B (+11 mg/dl) as well as lower mean levels of high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol (-15 mg/dl) and apolipoprotein A-I (-19 mg/dl). Additionally, men were more overweight, consumed more alcohol, and exercised more frequently than women but were less likely to smoke cigarettes. Controlling for these characteristics, however, did not alter the differences in lipoprotein levels between men and women. In contrast, adjustment for WHR (which was greater among men) reduced the sex differences in levels of apolipoprotein B (by 98%), triglycerides (by 94%), HDL cholesterol (by 33%), and apolipoprotein A-I (by 21%). Similar results were obtained using analysis of covariance, stratification, or matching; at comparable levels of WHR, differences in lipid and lipoprotein levels between men and women were greatly reduced. Although these results are based on cross-sectional analyses of employed adults and need to be replicated in other populations, the findings emphasize the relative importance of body fat distribution. Whereas generalized obesity and body fat distribution are associated with lipid levels, fat distribution (or a characteristic influencing fat patterning) can be an important determinant of sex differences in levels of triglycerides, HDL cholesterol, and apolipoproteins B and A-I.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1997

Body weight, body fat distribution, and hormonal replacement therapy in early postmenopausal women.

Body weight was measured, and body fat distribution was determined by dual energy x-ray in early postmenopausal women given either oral calcium (500 mg/day; control group; n = 12) or hormonal replacement therapy (HRT), a combination of estradiol valerate (2 mg/day for 21 days) with cyproterone acetate (1 mg/day in the last 10 days of the treatment cycle; n = 15). There were no differences in basal body weight or body fat distribution in the two groups before the study. In the control group, a significant (P < 0.05) increase in body weight (from 63.6 +/- 2.2 to 65.2 +/- 1.9 kg [corrected] after 12 months) paralleled a slight, but significant (P < 0.05), increase in total body fat mass (from 23.8 +/- 2.2 to 24.7 +/- 2.2 kg), with an increase in fat in the trunk (from 10.2 +/- 0.4 to 11.3 +/- 0.4 kg; P < 0.01) and arms (from 2.4 +/- 0.5 to 2.7 +/- 0.2 kg; P < 0.05). These findings demonstrate a shift to a prevalent central android fat distribution after 12 months of observation in untreated postmenopausal women. Conversely, in the HRT group, total body bone mineral showed a significant (from 1089 +/- 28 to 1106 +/- 29 mg/cm2; P < 0.05) increase after 12 months, with no significant increase in body weight (from 62.2 +/- 1.6 to 62.7 +/- 1.6 kg), and no modifications in trunk (from 10.0 +/- 0.2 to 9.8 +/- 0.3 kg) and arm (from 2.43 +/- 0.2 to 2.5 +/- 0.1 kg) fat, but a significant increase in leg fat (from 7.1 +/- 0.3 to 8.3 +/- 0.4 kg; P < 0.05). The present results suggest that HRT can counteract at least in part the postmenopausal increase in body weight and body fat and prevent central body fat distribution after menopause.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1993

Obesity, body fat distribution and sex hormones in men.

An unfavourable body fat distribution may cause metabolic abnormalities including diabetes and dyslipidemia. These effects may be mediated by alterations in sex hormones. In women the available data suggest that upper body adiposity is related to increased androgenicity (especially as indicated by low concentrations of sex hormone binding globulin). Few data, however, are available on these relationships in men. We therefore examined the association of total testosterone, free testosterone, oestradiol, dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate (DHEA-SO4) and sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) to waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) and conicity index in 178 men from the San Antonio Heart Study, a population-based study of diabetes and cardiovascular disease. The conicity index is equal to the abdominal circumference divided by 0.109 x the square root of (weight/height). The conicity index and WHR were significantly inversely related to DHEA-SO4 and free testosterone. SHBG was only weakly associated with body mass index (r = -0.18, P < 0.05). After adjustment for age and body mass index, DHEA-SO4 remained inversely correlated with WHR (r = -0.22, P < 0.01) and conicity index (r = -0.31, P < 0.001) and free testosterone remained inversely associated with conicity index (r = -0.21, P < 0.01). Thus, in men, the association between unfavourable body fat distribution and increased androgenicity is inverse in contrast to the situation in women.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1986

Splanchnic insulin metabolism in obesity. Influence of body fat distribution.

The effects of obesity and body fat distribution on splanchnic insulin metabolism and the relationship to peripheral insulin sensitivity were assessed in 6 nonobese and 16 obese premenopausal women. When compared with the nonobese women, obese women had significantly greater prehepatic production and portal vein levels of insulin both basally and following glucose stimulation. This increase correlated with the degree of adiposity but not with waist-to-hip girth ratio (WHR). WHR, however, correlated inversely with the hepatic extraction fraction and directly with the posthepatic delivery of insulin. The latter correlated with the degree of peripheral insulinemia. The decline in hepatic insulin extraction with increasing WHR also correlated with the accompanying diminution in peripheral insulin sensitivity. Increasing adiposity is thus associated with insulin hypersecretion. The pronounced hyperinsulinemia of upper body fat localization, however, is due to an additional defect in hepatic insulin extraction. This defect is closely allied with the decline in peripheral insulin sensitivity.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1988

Body fat distribution and the prognosis for weight reduction: preliminary observations.

In a preliminary study the influence of body fat distribution on the degree of weight reduction, blood lipids and blood glucose was investigated in 17 premenopausal obese women (BMI greater than 27 kg/m2), who followed an energy-reduced diet of 4.2 MJ/day for 8 weeks. Body fat distribution was distinguished in an abdominal and gluteal-femoral type using a cut-off point of 0.80 for the ratio of waist-to-hips girth. Mean weight reduction was about 10 kg. Body fat distribution was not related to the ability to lose weight. Body weight reduction was 10.2 +/- 3.3 kg (mean +/- s.d.) in the abdominal obese (n = 8) and 9.6 +/- 2.4 kg in the gluteal-femoral obese women (n = 8). In abdominal obese women, body fat distribution became more intermediate. This change in body fat distribution coincided in the abdominal obese, after weight loss, with greater decreases in blood glucose and serum lipids than in the gluteal-femoral obese.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1992

Benefit from hypocaloric diet in obese men depends on the extent of weight-loss regarding cholesterol, and on a simultaneous change in body fat distribution regarding insulin sensitivity and glucose tolerance.

Obesity and an android body fat distribution are related to metabolic disorders. We investigated the interdependences between metabolism, overweight, and body fat distribution in 40 moderately obese men before and after weight-loss. Correlations between metabolic parameters and body mass index (BMI) or waist to hip ratio (WHR) were much weaker in this exclusively obese population than in subjects of all weight categories, but the association between BMI and glucose tolerance (r = -.46, P less than .01) increased significantly after weight-loss. The improvement of metabolic parameters was much stronger in men who achieved normal weight (BMI less than 27 kg/m2) than in those who remained obese (BMI greater than 30 kg/m2, P less than .05). The WHR decreased during the diet (P less than .001), and this decrease and the extent of weight-loss were significantly correlated to an increase in insulin sensitivity (r = -.41, P less than .01) and a decrease in glucose area after an oral glucose load (r = .34, P less than .05). The decrease in apolipoprotein B, total cholesterol, and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol was significantly correlated only to the extent of weight-loss (r = .34, .31, and .39, respectively; P less than .05). We conclude that it is best to reach normal weight for the normalization of metabolic aberrations. The reduction of cholesterol appears to be dependent on the extent of weight-loss, while the improvement in insulin sensitivity and glucose tolerance apparently is related to both the extent of weight-loss and to a change toward a less android body fat distribution.

Abdomen↗
PubMed1995

The effect of body fat distribution on pulmonary function tests.

Although the influence of obesity on pulmonary function tests has been examined, the role of body fat distribution has received limited attention. Pulmonary studies of patients severely affected by upper body obesity suggest they have more severely compromised lung volumes than obese patients with lower body obesity. We examined 42 healthy but normal or mildly obese men to determine if body fat distribution influences pulmonary function tests. Multiple measures of adiposity showed a significant inverse relationship with both spirometry and static lung volumes. However, the biceps skinfold thickness had the strongest inverse relationship with total lung capacity (TLC) compared to other anthropometric measures. The waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) demonstrated a significant inverse relationship with static lung volumes only when controlling for cigarette smoking. However, comparing pulmonary function tests between patients with a WHR less than 0.950 (lower body fat distribution) and subjects with a WHR of 0.950 or greater (upper body fat distribution) revealed that FVC, FEV1, and TLC were significantly lower in the patients with upper body fat distribution. Stepwise multiple regression analysis was done using all anthropometric variables and age which generated predictive equations that included the biceps skinfold thickness for residual volume (RV) and TLC. This suggests that upper body fat distribution may be associated with a modest impairment of lung volumes in normal and mildly obese men. Until the findings of this study can be applied to a larger, ethnically and anthropometrically diverse population, and to women, we believe caution is warranted when standard equations are used to predict pulmonary function tests in an anthropometrically diverse population.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMedDate not supplied

A case-control study evaluating the association of purposeful physical activity, body fat distribution, and steroid hormones on premenopausal breast cancer risk.

The objective of this case-control study was to investigate the relationship between purposeful physical activity, body fat distribution, body mass index, and steroid hormones. These factors are known to be implicated in modulating breast cancer risk in premenopausal women. A total of 112 newly diagnosed, premenopausal breast cancer patients and 106 age-matched premenopausal disease-free controls were admitted to the study. Information regarding personal, medical, hormonal, and reproductive history, smoking and alcohol use, physical activity history, and anthropometric measurements was obtained. Serum samples for steroid hormone assays were collected and analyzed. Disease-free premenopausal controls had a significantly higher physical activity index (PAI) (p</=0.05), however, significantly higher weight (p</=0.05), body mass index (BMI) (p=0.01), waist (p</=0.005) and hip (p</=0.05) circumferences, waist:hip ratios (p</=0.05), and serum total estradiol levels (p<0.0005) were observed in cancer cases. The final model using stepwise logistic regression analysis indicates that the variables that significantly predicted breast cancer risk were waist:hip ratio (odds ratio [OR]=1.11, p</=0.005) and serum total estradiol levels (OR=1.03, p</=0.0001). Our study provides some evidence that purposeful physical activity may reduce upper body fat distribution associated with adult weight gain. This may be a result of alterations in the steroid hormone pathway, such as reduced estradiol levels. This demonstrates the potential mechanism through which increased physical activity can reduce the risk for breast cancer in premenopausal women.

Adult↗
PubMed1987

Do upper-body and centralized adiposity measure different aspects of regional body-fat distribution? Relationship to non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, lipids, and lipoproteins.

Both central and upper-body adiposity are associated with high rates of type II non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM), high triglyceride levels, and low high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels. Previous data have also suggested that central and upper-body adiposity are relatively uncorrelated and hence may measure different aspects of regional body fat distribution. We assessed body mass index (BMI), the ratio of subscapular-to-triceps skinfold (STR), the ratio of waist-to-hip circumference (WHR), lipids, lipoproteins, and glucose tolerance in 738 Mexican Americans (ages 25-64 yr), who participated in the San Antonio Heart Study, a population-based study of diabetes and cardiovascular risk factors. NIDDM was diagnosed according to National Diabetes Data Group criteria. In general, STR and WHR were associated with high NIDDM rates, low HDL cholesterol levels, and high triglyceride levels, although WHR was somewhat more predictive of these than STR. In females, BMI, WHR, and STR all made independent contributions to prediction of NIDDM and HDL cholesterol; in males, WHR and STR both made independent contributions to prediction of triglyceride levels. This suggests that both indices may measure different aspects of body-fat distribution. Investigators should consider measuring both of these indicators of body-fat distribution in studies of diabetes and other cardiovascular risk factors, although if only a single measure is feasible, WHR appears to be preferable.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed2002

Measuring body fat distribution and content in humans.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: In this review methods to measure the content and distribution of body fat or adipose tissue in humans are examined. The review particularly emphasizes methods to characterize regional fat distribution and ectopic fat (fat contained within other tissues) including specific applications and implications of region-specific or tissue-specific fat content. RECENT FINDINGS: Recent novel applications of body composition methods, including in-vivo imaging modalities, magnetic resonance spectroscopy techniques, and direct measurement of extracted tissue have advanced our understanding of many health related issues including obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, progressive muscle weakness in aging and lipodystrophy. In particular, the accumulation of lipid within muscle and liver has received increased attention because of its association with metabolic dysregulation or impaired muscle function. SUMMARY: Methods to quantify total body fat content in humans have provided considerable insight into obesity and related disorders, the aging process and its associated changes in function, and response to intervention. However, these methods have typically not been able to identify fat contained within specific regions of the body or within specific tissue. Direct quantification of fat distribution and fat within tissue in humans have been accomplished through in-vivo imaging techniques as well as invasive histological and biochemical approaches, and have advanced our understanding of many structure-function relationships. Further queries about human health and disease will undoubtedly lead to refinement of these methods and innovation of new body composition methodologies.

Absorptiometry, Photon↗