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PubMed1979

The host/parasite relationships of Xenopsylla astia and X. cheopis on Bandicota bengalensis in Rangoon, Burma.

In Rangoon, Burma, over half the commensal B. bengalensis taken in live traps were found to be infested with Xenopsylla species fleas. X. astia infestations were twice as common as those of the classic plague vector X. cheopis. In terms of absolute numbers X. astia outnumbered X. cheopis by 10 to 1. X. astia was more commonly found as a monospecific infestation, and X. cheopis was more commonly found mixed with X. astia. The flea indicies were high, with a specific index of 2.4 for X. cheopis and 10.2 for X. astia. The flea indicies and flea sex ratios remained stable across the host population and could not be correlated to changes in the head and body length of the host and were not different on male or female hosts. The evidence of this and other surveys is that X. cheopis is not as well adapted for parasitism on free ranging B. bengalensis as is X. astia.

Animals↗
PubMed1990

A comparative environmental and medical study of dust exposure in jute and cotton mills in Burma.

Jute is extensively cultivated and processed in Burma, as well as "lower-grade" cotton. This study was conducted there to compare dust exposure in jute and cotton mills, to study the acute and chronic effects of dust exposure on workers, and to establish exposure-response relationship. A sample of 799 male and female workers in two jute mills and two cotton textile mills, as well as a control group of 153 matching subjects, was examined, and dust exposure in the work environment was evaluated. Very high dust concentrations existed in the early stages of jute processing and sorting, which were reduced when jute fibers got cleaner, as in drawing and spinning, and were related to the grade of the processed fiber. Much lower concentrations of dust existed in the cotton mills, but exceeded the TLV (ACGIH) only in opening and cleaning and in carding operations. However, byssinosis occurred only in workers exposed to cotton dust, particularly among males, and its prevalence was related to the level and duration of dust exposure. Chronic bronchitis, cough and wheezing occurred at higher rates among all workers than in the control, while irritation to nose and throat, eyes and skin prevailed only among jute workers. A significant reduction in FVC, FEV1.0 and PEF (before and during shift) was observed in workers compared to control subjects, and was related to workers' exposure and age; however, this reduction was not related to symptoms of different respiratory conditions. "Cheroots" smoking was found to be an important potentiating factor in the occurrence of non-specific respiratory diseases and reduction in FEV1.0, particularly among jute workers.

Adult↗
PubMed1990

Undetectable anti-bacterial activity of Andrographis paniculata (Burma) wall. ex ness.

Andrographis paniculata (Burma) Wall. ex Ness (AP) is a herbal medicine and has been used for therapy of upper respiratory tract infection (URI) as well as acute diarrhea with reported efficacy of 75-100 per cent. To investigate whether anti-bacterial activity was responsible for the reported therapeutic success of AP, we carried out a number of studies. The first study was a direct assay of anti-bacterial activity of AP suspended in water. The tested pathogens included Salmonella, Shigella, E.coli, gr. A Streptococci and S.aureus. Anti-bacterial activity was not demonstrable even in a solution containing 25,000 mg per litre of crude powder. The second was designed to detect serum bactericidal activity after oral intake of stem and leaves of AP. Ten healthy volunteers were enrolled in the study. They received a single oral dose of AP (1, 2, 3 and 6 g) in a randomized, cross-over manner. The washout period was one week. Blood samples were taken at 0, 1, 2, 4, 8 and 24 hours after ingestion. Serum bactericidal activity was assayed by agar diffusion technique using Bacillus spores and five strains of each pathogen (Shigella, Salmonella typhi, S.aureus and gr. A Streptococci) incubated for 24 hours. Again serum bactericidal activity was not detected in any of the sera tested. In a third study, ninety-six rats were daily fed with high doses of AP ranging 0.12-24 g per kg body wt. for six months before sacrifice. Antibacterial activity was still undetectable when lung parenchyma and liver tissue was placed on culture media containing bacteria tested. In conclusion, anti-bacterial activity of AP is undetectable in our study.

Animals↗
PubMed1979

Pilot sero-epidemiological survey on Japanese encephalitis in north-western Burma.

A pilot sero-epidemiological survey of Japanese encephalitis was carried out in three areas of north-western Burma applying the hemagglutination-inhibition test. The existence of Japanese encephalitis infection in these areas was confirmed and its incidences in these areas were estimated and compared graphically.

Antibodies, Viral↗
PubMed1989

Indeterminate leprosy in a population survey and in the subsequent follow-ups of children in Burma.

The paper discusses various aspects of indeterminate (I) leprosy in the initial survey undertaken in the Burma BCG trial (69,242 inhabitants), and in the annual examinations of 28,220 children in the trial followed up over periods of five to eight years. Age-specific rates in the initial mass survey are presented. In total 1914 cases were detected (6.2% I, 76% T, 16% L and 1.8% B). Among the children in the BCG trial 768 cases were detected: 255 of them had the I form and their proportion (33%) was much higher than in the population survey. Of these 255 I cases only 4.3% had a negative or doubtful lepromin reaction. Two-thirds of these 255 cases evolved to the tuberculoid pole in less than one year. No L cases appeared in the trial population until ten and eleven years after the start of the trial. It is concluded that whereas a high proportion of indeterminate cases regress spontaneously or evolve towards the T pole, the indeterminate lepromin negative cases are important in the dynamics of the disease, because a proportion of them, if untreated, tend to envolve towards the L form. This stresses the importance of detection and treatment of I cases at an early stage in an effective strategy for controlling leprosy.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1985

Falciparum malaria treated with a fixed combination of mefloquine, sulfadoxine and pyrimethamine: a field study in adults in Burma.

In a field study conducted in Burma, 54 semi-immune adults suffering from falciparum malaria (mean parasite count, 15 328/mm(3) before treatment) were given a single dose of a fixed combination of 750 mg mefloquine base, 1500 mg sulfadoxine, and 75 mg pyrimethamine (3 tablets of Fansimef). All these patients were cleared of asexual parasites by day 7, giving a cure rate of 100%; the mean clearance time was 2.6 days. Reappearance of parasitaemia occurred in 10 patients on or before day 7 and persisted for one day in 8 of them and for two days in 2 patients. It eventually disappeared without further treatment. No recrudescence occurred during the follow-up time of four weeks despite the fact that there was active transmission of Plasmodium falciparum in the area throughout the whole of the study period. The drug was generally well tolerated, though mild to moderate giddiness was reported by 49 patients (90.7%) and severe giddiness by 3 patients (5.5%). Nausea occurred in 25 patients (46.3%) and vomiting in 17 (31.5%).

Adolescent↗
PubMed1985

In vitro sensitivity of Plasmodium falciparum isolates from Burma to chloroquine quinine and mefloquine.

The in vitro sensitivity of 26 isolates of Plasmodium falciparum from Rangoon and Tharrawaddy areas in Burma were studied on chloroquine, mefloquine and quinine. The results indicated that the parasites were highly resistant to chloroquine but sensitive to mefloquine and quinine. The existence of correlation of sensitivity to mefloquine and quinine was detected and discussed. No correlation between the parasite sensitivity to chloroquine and mefloquine and or chloroquine and quinine was detected.

Antimalarials↗
PubMed1985

BCG vaccination of children against leprosy: fourteen-year findings of the trial in Burma.

The value of BCG vaccination in preventing leprosy among children was studied in an area of high leprosy endemicity in Burma through a controlled trial; one group of 13 066 children received BCG and another group of 13 176 served as controls. The overall protective effect of BCG, which was only about 20% over the 14-year period, was found to vary with the batch of vaccine, as well as age, sex, and contact status of the children. BCG protection was found to be independent of the initial tuberculin status of the children. The protective effect of BCG against the lepromatous type of leprosy could not be measured because of the low incidence. Protection was observed throughout the fourteen years of the study except for the first year. The results are compared with those of three other major BCG trials in leprosy. The trial has shown that BCG provides only a very modest level of protection and that BCG vaccination is not likely to be an important solution for leprosy control.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1986

Knowledge, attitudes and behaviour in relation to diarrhoea in a rural community in Burma.

A study was conducted in a rural community in Burma, to determine how people perceive the importance of food, water and defecation in the causation of diarrhoea and to determine whether people wash hands or use soap after defecation or before preparing and eating food. 90% of mothers with under-five children in the community were interviewed. 53 to 86% of people were aware of the importance of food, water and defecation in the causation of diarrhoea. Although 34 to 88% practised hand washing before eating/food handling or after defecation, only 5 to 12% regularly used soap. Furthermore, drinking water for under-five children was obtained by dipping the drinking mug or cup into the drinking water pot (83%) which could result in contamination of drinking water.

Adult↗
PubMed1987

Measurement of mortality from neonatal tetanus in Burma.

Surveys to determine mortality from neonatal tetanus were conducted in March and April 1985 in accessible areas of Burma, where pregnant women had been immunized with tetanus toxoid and, for comparison, also in areas where such immunization had not been given. Neonatal mortality rates were three times greater in areas where tetanus toxoid immunization had only recently or had not yet been introduced by the national expanded programme on immunization. Analysis of the data indicates that the impact on reduction of neonatal mortality from tetanus of three interventions (immunization of pregnant women with tetanus toxoid; delivery in hospital; or birth at home attended by a trained health worker) was greatest for immunization.

Health Surveys↗
PubMed1987

Polymorphisms in some racial groups in Burma.

Data are presented on serum and red cell polymorphisms in five ethnic groups in Burma, the Chin, Naga, Kachin, Shan and Kayah. Gene frequencies are discussed in relation to the present geographical locations of the groups and their probable history of migration.

Alleles↗
PubMed1967

Outdoor resting of Culex pipiens fatigans in Rangoon, Burma.

The sites occupied by resting adult mosquitos are of importance, since they may be accessible to treatment with insecticide. It has usually been assumed that Culex pipiens fatigans feeds and rests indoors, thus making itself vulnerable to indoor spraying. However, work in the Kemmendine Experimental Area of Rangoon, Burma, has now shown that many C. p. fatigans rest out of doors in a variety of shelters. The lower parous rate in outside catches as compared with indoor catches tends to confirm the view that newly hatched C. p. fatigans rest out of doors for some time before setting off to feed. The percentage of infected mosquitos is remarkably constant from site to site and from month to month and does not differ significantly from that obtained in indoor resting catches or on bait out of doors. It appears that the possibility of acquiring infection out of doors will have to be seriously considered in any anti-filariasis campaign.

Animals↗
PubMed1967

Evaluation of Wuchereria bancrofti infection in Culex pipiens fatigans in Rangoon, Burma.

In the past, several indices have been proposed to evaluate the threat of vectors to the community. Such indices, if accurately determined, could serve to assess the effectiveness of vector control campaigns. In this paper, a "risk of infection" index is introduced for the case of urban filariasis transmitted by Culex pipiens fatigans in Rangoon, Burma. This index is directly proportional to the three principal parameters that determine the extent of transmission-namely, the biting density of the vector, the proportion parous to total biting, and the proportion infective to total parous; all these parameters are easily determined from biting catches. Examples of the use of the index are given and it is noted that, in areas where conditions are not favourable to the vector throughout the year, or where the speed of development of the parasite in the vector may not be constant, these variables must be taken into account in calculating the index.

Animals↗
PubMed1967

The susceptibility of Culex pipiens fatigans larvae to insecticides in Rangoon, Burma.

Since April 1963, the susceptibility to insecticides of larvae of Culex pipiens fatigans has been extensively studied by the WHO Filariasis Research Unit in Rangoon, Burma, as part of a programme of research aimed at establishing which compound or group of compounds could be used to control the vector of filariasis.Larvae from various localities in Rangoon showed wide variations in susceptibility to chlorinated hydrocarbons. There were also seasonal variations and it was difficult to standardize test conditions. Nevertheless, resistance to this group of compounds, especially DDT, sufficient to prevent control has been clearly demonstrated. As C. p. fatigans has never been subjected to intensive control by insecticides in Rangoon, the results confirm the findings made elsewhere that this mosquito is naturally resistant to chlorinated hydrocarbons.The larvae are, however, susceptible to organophosphorus compounds, especially fenthion and parathion.

Animals↗
PubMed1970

BCG vaccination of children against leprosy. Preliminary findings of the WHO-controlled trial in Burma.

The use of BCG vaccine in the prevention of leprosy has been one of the most important subjects of investigation in the field of leprology in the last 25 years. The action of the vaccine was for many years investigated by determining its effect on the lepromin reaction. Field studies were later considered essential to determine whether BCG vaccination would be useful to leprosy contacts, to the child population probably exposed to infection, or to persons persistently lepromin-negative.The interest of the World Health Organization in this matter began in 1952 and, following the recommendations of certain advisory committees, it was decided to institute a field trial in Singu township in Burma. The main purpose of the investigation was to observe, in a highly endemic area, the protective effect, if any, of BCG vaccine against leprosy in the child population not exposed to Mycobacterium leprae at home but possibly exposed to the infection elsewhere.Field operations began at the end of August 1964 and the preliminary findings obtained up to the end of June 1968 relate to 3 annual re-examinations. So far, from the material studied, it appears that, under the conditions prevailing in Singu township, no significant effect of BCG vaccine can be seen within a period of 3 years. When children in both trial groups are followed-up for much longer periods, mainly children aged 0-4 years at intake, it is possible that a significant difference may emerge. However, to be operationally desirable, a merely significant difference is not enough; the protective effect of BCG should be substantial to warrant its large-scale use as an immunization procedure against leprosy.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1970

Summary of field trials in 1964-69 in Rangoon, Burma, of organophosphorus larvicides and oils against Culex pipiens fatigens larvae in polluted water.

In tests in Rangoon, Burma, of the larvicidal activity of various organophosphorus compounds against C. p. fatigans, it was found that the activity usually lasted much longer in septic tanks and pit latrines than in open drains. Dursban, Abate, fenthion and several other emulsifiable concentrates caused high larval mortality at a concentration of 0.05 ppm but 0.5 ppm was normally required to obtain a minimum of 1-2 weeks of complete larval control. For the desired residual activity, dosages about 40-400 times the laboratory LC(95) values were normally required, depending on the compound used.The most effective formulation was Dursban emulsifiable concentrate, which, at a concentration of 0.5 ppm, was effective for 3, 7 and 12 weeks in concrete drains, pit latrines and septic tanks, respectively. Petroleum oils applied at rates of 25-40 US gal/ac (approx. 237 l/ha-380 l/ha) and a pyrethrum derivative at a concentration of 1.0 ppm were toxic to larvae but not highly residual. Some emulsifiable-concentrate/oil mixtures appeared to be outstandingly effective, although inconsistent results also occurred. Granular formulations were normally less effective than the emulsifiable concentrates.

Animals↗
PubMed1973

BCG vaccination of children against leprosy: seven-year findings of the controlled WHO trial in Burma.

A controlled study of the efficacy of BCG vaccination for the prevention of leprosy began in Burma at the end of August 1964. This paper presents the findings after 7 years-i.e., the results of 6 annual follow-up examinations up to the end of June 1971. The incidence rate in BCG-vaccinated children 0-4 years of age at intake was lower than that in children in the control group. The protection conferred by BCG was relatively low (44%) and applied only to early cases of leprosy, the great majority tuberculoid cases. BCG vaccination did not protect household contacts or children 5-14 years of age who were not exposed in the household. This reduction must be interpreted in the light of several factors: form of leprosy, bacterial status, lepromin reactivity, evolution of cases, and level of endemicity. Consequently it does not seem probable that the reduction in incidence would substantially affect the pattern or trend of the disease in an area similar to that where the study is being carried out; the probability would be much lower if not nil in regions of relatively low endemicity (1-2 per 1 000 or less).

Adolescent↗
PubMed1973

Some epidemiological data on leprosy collected in a mass survey in Burma.

In the WHO Leprosy BCG Trial in Burma a mass survey was undertaken to determine whether children had been exposed to patients with leprosy and, if so, the form of the index case. This paper presents the most important epidemiological data collected in this survey. The prevalence rate was 31.6 per 1 000. It seems that even if the prevalence rate is very high the L rate does not increase accordingly. The high T rates in areas of high endemicity seem to be related mainly to the degree of spreading of leprosy, even to persons who react to lepromin. Comparison of the results with data available for the area before the survey was made shows that 87% of the L cases had already been detected and that 54% of the T cases had not. There was a tendency for high L rates to be associated with high prevalence rates. The results do not suggest that any particular age group has greater susceptibility or resistance; the prevalence rates seemed to be related mainly to the age when exposure occurred. A higher prevalence of leprosy in males started to appear in the 10-14-year age group, and after the age of 15 the difference became impressive. Biological, socio-economic, and environmental factors seem to be responsible for the level of endemicity, which does not seem to be essentially or primarily related to ethnic origin.

Adolescent↗